Bioc- M🐈 (Cell,metabolism,genetics,organic Molecules)

Front 1

What's the Hardy-Weinberg equation?

Back 1

p^2+2pq+q^2=1

Front 2

Hardy-Weinberg equilibriumwhat it says?what the equation says?

Back 2

Frequencies of alleles remain constant given its not influenced by mutation,migration,selection and genetic drift.

Frequencies of alleles remain constant given its not influenced by mutation,migration,selection and genetic drift.

Front 3

What's the Hardy-Weinberg equation says?

Back 3

The Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium equation states that in the absence of evolutionary forces, the frequencies of genotypes in a population remain constant over generations, with \(p^2 + 2pq + q^2\) equaling 1. And also p+q =1

Front 4

What is the Calvin Cycle?

Back 4

The cycle that is responsible for conversion of CO2 into Organic molecules such as Glucose

Front 5

what are the three steps of Calvin cycle? Where does it takes place?

Back 5

1. carbon fixation2. reduction3. regeneration.

Stroma

Front 6

where does the translation of antibodies occur in eukaryotic cells

Back 6

RER

Front 7

Function of Golgi Apparatus

Back 7

1. **Protein Modification:** Modifies proteins by adding carbohydrates and other chemical groups.2. **Sorting and Packaging:** Sorts proteins and packages them into vesicles for specific cellular destinations.3. **Lysosome Formation:** Involved in the formation of lysosomes containing digestive enzymes.4. **Secretion:** Facilitates the secretion of proteins and lipids from the cell.5. **Transport Vesicle Formation:** Forms transport vesicles to carry proteins to their intended locations within or outside the cell.

Front 8

What are the 3 vesicle protein coats and their routes?

Back 8

CLathrin (GB to PMb) COPII(ER to GB) COPIII(GB to ER)

Front 9

What organelle is responsible for drugs(alcohol) detoxification and metabolism

Back 9

SER

Front 10

Functions of Smooth ER

Back 10

1. synthesizes lipids(cholesterol for test x)

2. metabolizes carbs

3. detoxifies drugs and poisons, 4. stores calcium ions

Front 11

Functions of ROugh ER

Back 11

1.Protein Synthesis: Ribosomes on the RER synthesize proteins.

2. Protein Folding: Ensures proper folding of synthesized proteins.

3.Post-translational Modifications: Adds essential modifications like glycosylation.

4.Quality Control: Checks and ensures the quality of synthesized proteins.

1.Protein Synthesis: Ribosomes on the RER synthesize proteins.2. Protein Folding: Ensures proper folding of synthesized proteins.3.Post-translational Modifications: Adds essential modifications like glycosylation.4.Quality Control: Checks and ensures the quality of synthesized proteins.5.Secretory Protein Production: Produces proteins for secretion.6.Membrane Protein Synthesis: Synthesizes proteins for cellular membranes.7.Transport Vesicle Formation: Forms vesicles for protein transport to the Golgi apparatus.

5.Secretory Protein Production: Produces proteins for secretion.

6.Membrane Protein Synthesis: Synthesizes proteins for cellular membranes.

7.Transport Vesicle Formation: Forms vesicles for protein transport to the Golgi apparatus.

Front 12

Eight stages of Erickson PS devpt

Back 12

1.trust vs mistrust 0-12. autonomy vs shame/doubt.1 to 33.initiative vs Guilt 3 to 6

4. industry vs inferiority 6 to 125. identity vs role confusion. 12 to 186. intimacy vs isolation 18 to 407. generativity vs stagnation 40 to 65 8.integrity vs despair

Front 13

Things that can pass through nuclear pores . Things cannot

Back 13

Ions, Water, RNA, small Proteins, Nucleotides, Particles.Ribosome subunits.

No entry: large structures, like organelles,dna, ribosomes(fully assembled) etc unrecognized items too

Highly regulated

Front 14

Why is Glucose converted to Lactic acid

Back 14

Lactic acid is produced in the absence of oxygen during fermentation as a way to regenerate NAD+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide), an essential molecule for glycolysis. This allows cells to continue producing ATP (energy) when oxygen is limited.

Front 15

What's the key enzyme in Lactic Acid fermentation

Back 15

Lactate dehyrdrogenase.

During lactic acid fermentation, the key enzyme involved is lactate dehydrogenase. This enzyme catalyzes the conversion of pyruvate (a product of glycolysis) to lactic acid by using NADH, which is then oxidized back to NAD+ in the process.

Front 16

What are the functions of persoxisome?

Back 16

1.Beta-oxidation of fatty acids2.Detoxification(H2O2)3.Synthesis of plasmalogens4.Metabolism of reactive oxygen species (ROS)

1.Beta-oxidation of fatty acids2.Detoxification(H2O2)3.Synthesis of plasmalogens4.Metabolism of reactive oxygen species (ROS)5.Glyoxylate cycle6.Metabolism of amino acids7.Lipid biosynthesis(in addition to their breakdown)

1.Beta-oxidation of fatty acids2.Detoxification(H2O2)3.Synthesis of plasmalogens4.Metabolism of reactive oxygen species (ROS)5.Glyoxylate cycle6.Metabolism of amino acids7.Lipid biosynthesis(in addition to their breakdown)

1.Beta-oxidation of fatty acids2.Detoxification(H2O2)3.Synthesis of plasmalogens4.Metabolism of reactive oxygen species (ROS)5.Glyoxylate cycle6.Metabolism of amino acids7.Lipid biosynthesis(in addition to their breakdown)

5.Glyoxylate cycle

6.Metabolism of amino acids

7.Lipid biosynthesis(in addition to their breakdown)

Front 17

Catabolism?

Back 17

🐈 breaking apart into simpler things.

Front 18

Anabolism?

Back 18

🐘 Building blocks into Bigger things

Front 19

Chyme is passed from stomach to Small intestine through ______?

Back 19

Pyloric Sphincter

Front 20

What's phagosome

Back 20

Phagocytosis is a type of endocytosis where cells engulf solid particles, such as bacteria, cellular debris, or other large particles, into membrane-bound vesicles known as phagosomes. Lysosome fuse into phagosomes containing engulfed material, and become phagolysosome.

Front 21

What's Symporter

Back 21

A symporter is a type of integral membrane protein involved in facilitated diffusion or active transport of molecules across a cell membrane. It functions by simultaneously transporting two different substances in the same direction, either both into the cell or both out of the cell. This cooperative transport of molecules is a crucial mechanism for nutrient uptake and ion transport in various cells. An example is the sodium-glucose symporter, which transports both sodium ions and glucose into cells.

Front 22

What's an Antiporter

Back 22

An antiporter is a type of integral membrane protein that facilitates the simultaneous transport of two different molecules or ions across a cell membrane but in opposite directions. Essentially, an antiporter "swaps" one substance for another. This type of transport is often involved in maintaining ion balance and regulating concentrations of various substances within cells. An example is the sodium-potassium pump, which exchanges sodium ions out of the cell for potassium ions into the cell.

Front 23

What's Axoneme?

Back 23

The axoneme is a structure found in eukaryotic cells, specifically in the tail (flagellum or cilium) of certain cells. It consists of microtubules arranged in a characteristic 9+2 pattern, referring to a ring of nine microtubule doublets surrounding a central pair. This arrangement provides structural support and facilitates the movement of the flagellum or cilium. The axoneme is involved in the beating or movement of these cellular appendages, playing a crucial role in processes such as cell motility and the movement of fluids over cell surfaces.

Front 24

Microtubules pattern in

Centrosome

Cilia or Flagella

Cytoskeleton

Back 24

9+0

9+2

13 parallel

Front 25

Each components of cytoskeleton and building blocks

Back 25

1. **Microfilaments (Actin Filaments):** - **Building Blocks:** Actin filaments are composed of globular actin monomers (G-actin) that polymerize to form long, thin filaments. These filaments are often arranged in a double helix.2. **Intermediate Filaments:** - **Building Blocks:** Intermediate filaments have a more diverse composition, as different cell types may use different proteins. Examples include keratins, vimentins, and neurofilaments. The monomers for intermediate filaments are fibrous proteins.3. **Microtubules:** - **Building Blocks:** Microtubules are composed of tubulin protein subunits. The basic building blocks are α-tubulin and β-tubulin dimers, which polymerize longitudinally to form protofilaments. Thirteen protofilaments then associate laterally to generate the tubular structure of a microtubule.These components, with their specific building blocks, contribute to the cytoskeleton's overall structure and function in providing mechanical support, facilitating intracellular transport, and participating in various cellular processes.

Front 26

What's Arp 2/3

Back 26

The Arp2/3 complex is a protein complex involved in the regulation of the actin cytoskeleton, particularly in the nucleation of new actin filaments. Arp2/3 stands for Actin-Related Protein 2/3.

Front 27

Robertsonian translocation

Back 27

Robertsonian translocation is a type of chromosomal rearrangement that involves the fusion of two acrocentric chromosomes. Acrocentric chromosomes have their centromere near one end, and in this translocation, the long arms of two acrocentric chromosomes break and fuse, creating a single, larger chromosome.

Front 28

Cytoskeleton involved in cytoplasmic streaming/protplasmic movt.

Back 28

Actin filaments(myosin)

Front 29

What's prokaryotic flagella composed of

Back 29

Flagellin

Front 30

What organelle does glycosylation to proteins

Back 30

GOlgiA

Front 31

What's lactic acid fermentation

Back 31

Lactic acid fermentation is a metabolic process where glucose is converted into lactic acid. It occurs in some bacteria and animal cells, especially during intense exercise when oxygen is scarce.

Front 32

Cytoskeleton involved in phagocystosis

Back 32

Actin(microfilaments)

Front 33

What's the motor protein that works with microtubule to generate motion, in cilia and flagella

Back 33

Dynein

Front 34

Steroid structure

Back 34

Four fused carbon rings, granting them lipophilic properties. Functional groups and side chains determine their biological activity. Examples include testosterone and estrogen.

Front 35

Structure of Phopholipid

Back 35

Phospholipids consist of a glycerol backbone, with a phosphate-containing (hydrophilic) head and two fatty acid (hydrophobic) tails attached.

Front 36

Sphingosine?

Back 36

Sphingosine: Sphingosine serves as the backbone for sphingolipids, a class of lipids found in cell membranes. Sphingolipids have diverse functions including cell signaling, cell-cell recognition, and membrane stability.

Front 37

Sphingo-lipids

Back 37

X- is functional group

Front 38

Sphingosine structure

Back 38

a lengthy aliphatic chain and an amino group positioned at the 2-position.

Front 39

What's Saponification

Back 39

Saponification involves the hydrolysis of ester bonds in fats or oils by a strong base, which results in the formation of soap (the salt of a fatty acid) and glycerol (the alcohol).

Front 40

Gangliosides

Back 40

Gangliosides are a type of glycosphingolipid, which are molecules composed of a lipid and a carbohydrate portion. They are found primarily in the outer layer of the cell membrane and are particularly abundant in nerve cells. Gangliosides play important roles in cell recognition, cell signaling, and cell-to-cell communication in the nervous system.

Ceramide+ oligosaccharide

Front 41

Sphingolipid types

Back 41

Front 42

Nonsense mutation"

Back 42

"Nonsense mutation" refers to a type of mutation in DNA that leads to the creation of a premature stop codon, resulting in the production of a shortened, typically nonfunctional protein. This mutation disrupts the normal process of protein synthesis, leading to potentially harmful effects on the organism.

Front 43

Conservative mutation

Back 43

A conservative mutation is a type of genetic mutation where the altered DNA sequence results in the substitution of one amino acid with another that has similar chemical properties. This substitution typically occurs within the protein-coding region of a gene and may not significantly affect the structure or function of the resulting protein. As a result, the conservative mutation may have minimal or no observable impact on the phenotype or behavior of the organism.

Front 44

Non-conservative mutation

Back 44

A non-conservative mutation is a genetic change where one amino acid in a protein is replaced by another with different chemical properties, potentially altering the protein's structure and function, leading to observable effects in the organism.

Front 45

A silent mutation

Back 45

A silent mutation is a genetic change that doesn't alter the amino acid sequence of the protein, thus having no observable effect on the organism's phenotype.

Front 46

When you call, transition in Genetic Mutation.

Back 46

If A purine is switched to another purine OR a pyramidine is switched to pyramidine

Front 47

Use of ethidium bromide interpolation to DNA

Back 47

Ethidium bromide staining allows scientists to visualize the bands of DNA within a gel, aiding in the identification and analysis of DNA molecules of interest.. but should be careful as it can be mutagenic (ethidium bromide can also inhibit DNA replication and transcription by blocking the movement of DNA polymerase and RNA polymerase along the DNA strand. )

Front 48

Osteogenesis imperfecta

Back 48

Osteogenesis imperfecta (OI) is a genetic disorder causing fragile bones prone to breaking, due to mutations affecting collagen production. Treatment focuses on managing symptoms and preventing fractures.

Front 49

What's the product of Glycolysis

Back 49

2 pyruvate +2ATP+ 2 NADH

Front 50

Products of TcA cycle

Back 50

3NADH+2CO2+1GTP(ATP)+2FADH2 for every Acetyl-COA .

Front 51

3 pathway when there's pyruvate.Condition:cycle:first product

3 pathway when there's pyruvate.Condition:cycle:first product

Back 51

Aerobic:TCA cycle:Acetyl COA

Anaerobic:Cori cycle(lactic acid fermentation):Lactate

(Transamination):Cahill cycle:Alanine

Front 52

Input/investment of Glycolysis

Back 52

GLUCOSE +2ATP [ 2ADP + 2Pi] +2NAD

Front 53

What's the eqn of Glycolysis

Back 53

Front 54

What Ez traps Glucose to Glycolysis and begins the pathway

Back 54

Hexokinase

Front 55

What prevents Glucose escaping the cell in Glycolysis . What's that form

Back 55

Pi group added to it(negative charge). G6P

Front 56

What Inhibits hexokinase in Glycolysis. What kind of inhibitor

Back 56

G6P( the one that HexoK catalysed).

Allosteric Inhibitor

Front 57

What inhibits PFK ez in glycolysis?What PFK does?

What revvs PFK

Back 57

Inhibiting

InhibitingATP/citrate.

InhibitingATP/citrate.(It converts F6P to [F-1,6bP] rate determining irreversible step.)Revving AMP,ADP( both byproducts of ATP metabolism)F2,6bP ( its produced some where in gluconeogenesis)

InhibitingATP/citrate.(It converts F6P to [F-1,6bP] rate determining irreversible step.)Revving AMP,ADP( both byproducts of ATP metabolism)F2,6bP ( its produced some where in gluconeogenesis)

InhibitingATP/citrate.(It converts F6P to [F-1,6bP] rate determining irreversible step.)Revving AMP,ADP( both byproducts of ATP metabolism)F2,6bP ( its produced some where in gluconeogenesis)

InhibitingATP/citrate.(It converts F6P to [F-1,6bP] rate determining irreversible step.)Revving AMP,ADP( both byproducts of ATP metabolism)F2,6bP ( its produced some where in gluconeogenesis)

InhibitingATP/citrate.(It converts F6P to [F-1,6bP] rate determining irreversible step.)Revving AMP,ADP( both byproducts of ATP metabolism)F2,6bP ( its produced some where in gluconeogenesis)

(It converts F6P to [F-1,6bP] rate determining irreversible step.)Revving AMP,ADP( both byproducts of ATP metabolism)F2,6bP ( its produced some where in gluconeogenesis)

Front 58

In ABO.What are the alleles,Which one is dominant, which one is codominant ?

In ABO.What are the alleles,Which one is dominant, which one is codominant ?

In ABO.What are the alleles,Which one is dominant, which one is codominant ?

Back 58

A,B,O are alleles.A and B is dominant over O., and Codominant when together.

A,B,O are alleles.A and B is dominant over O., and Codominant when together.

Front 59

Penetrance

Back 59

Penetrance refers to the proportion of individuals carrying a particular genetic variant or mutation who actually express the associated trait or condition. It describes the likelihood that a specific genotype will result in the observable phenotype. High penetrance means that most individuals with the genetic variant will exhibit the trait, while low penetrance indicates that only a small percentage of carriers will display the trait.

Front 60

Variable expressivity

Back 60

Variable expressivity refers to the phenomenon where individuals with the same genetic mutation or variant exhibit different degrees or types of phenotypic traits or manifestations of a particular condition. In other words, although individuals may have the same underlying genetic mutation, the severity or presentation of the associated traits can vary widely among affected individuals. This variation in expressivity can be influenced by factors such as genetic modifiers, environmental factors, and stochastic events during development.

Front 61

Disruptive,stabilizing,directional selection

Back 61

Front 62

Allopatric speciation

Back 62

Allopatric speciation is a process where a new species arises due to geographical isolation, preventing gene flow between populations. Over time, genetic differences accumulate through mutation, genetic drift, and natural selection, leading to reproductive isolation and the formation of distinct species.

Front 63

Who coined the term Nucleic acid? And what was the cell type he is working on?

Back 63

Friedric Meischer.Lymphocytes

Front 64

Who identified Nucleus as holder of genetics by studying cell division , also who found its DNA by studying bacteria. What he did to bacteria there

Back 64

Wilhelm Roux

Frederick Griffith=>heat killed bacteria transformed the other, says its DNA(protein denatures)

Front 65

Chargaffs rule

Back 65

A=T G=C

Front 66

Primer igniting notes[pin📌] on Hershey-Chase experiment

Back 66

📌 DNA is the material.

Worked on Bacteriophage.

Radioactive S-35 🏷 P.

Radioactive P-32 🏷 DNA.

1952.

Note: Watson&Crick paper on 1953

Front 67

What decides the gender? Why

Back 67

Male sperm.B/c it has Y xsome, which has SRY gene, which codes for development of Testes. If not female.

Male sperm.B/c it has Y xsome, which has SRY gene, which codes for development of Testes. If not female.

Front 68

Why is colorblindness prevalent in male alone? Give one more example

Back 68

It's sexlinked recessive . Think from there.

Hemophilia(blood clotting factor deficiency)

Front 69

When do you multiply or Add I probability

Back 69

Probability is multiplied when events are independent, meaning the occurrence of one event does not affect the occurrence of another event. This is known as the multiplication rule of probability. Probability is added when events are mutually exclusive, meaning they cannot occur simultaneously. This is known as the addition rule of probability. In summary:- Multiplication: Independent events- Addition: Mutually exclusive events

Front 70

What's site of crossing over called?

What's the pairing and forming if physical conenction of Chromosomes called?

What's the formed complex called?

What are Chromosomes called at this point?

Back 70

Chiasma.

Synapsis

Synaptonemal complex.

Tetrad

Front 71

What's site of crossing over called?

What's the pairing and forming if physical conenction of Chromosomes called?

What's the formed complex called?

What are Chromosomes called at this point?

Back 71

Chiasma.

Synapsis

Synaptonemal complex.

Tetrad

Front 72

Closer the genes are ____likely the recombination of those genes

Back 72

Less

Front 73

What's 1 centimorgan and it's unit

Back 73

A centimorgan (cM) measures genetic distance on a chromosome, representing a 1% chance of recombination between two loci during one round of meiosis.

Front 74

How much mitochondrial genes, and Chloroplastal Dna, approximately

Back 74

MtCh=>37- mostly for cellular respiration.

replicate independent of Nucleus

CpDNa=> 100,codes mostly for photosynthesis

Front 75

What organs/cell types use only Glucose as energy source

Back 75

Glucose is the only energy source used by the brain (with the exception of ketone bodies during times of fasting), testes, erythrocytes, and kidney medulla.

Front 76

Where does gluconeogenesis occur

Back 76

In mammals this process occurs in the liver and kidneys.

Front 77

What's Acetyl

Back 77

Acetyl: CH3CO-, a two-carbon compound derived from acetic acid, commonly found in metabolic pathways.

Front 78

How many products come put of Glycolysis of one Glucose include the expense.

Back 78

Game of 2

2 Pyruvate

2 NADH + [H+]

2 H20

2 ATP.

Front 79

Does pyruvate from Glycolysis diffuse in to mitochondria. Why?

Back 79

No. It needs a transport P.Because it have a charged end, (carboxylic)

No. It needs a transport P.Because it have a charged end, (carboxylic)

Front 80

Products of Pyruvate oxidation per Glucose; what's the Ez.

It's location

Back 80

There is 2 pyruvate, so everything x2.2 x CO2

2 x NADH +[H+]

There is 2 pyruvate, so everything x2.2 x CO2 2 x NADH +[H+]2× AcetylCOA. Ez: pyruvate Dehydrogenase.Location prok: cytosolEuk: mtch

2× AcetylCOA.

Ez: pyruvate Dehydrogenase.

Location prok: cytosol

Euk: mtch matrix

Front 81

Product of Krebs cycle,for each for one Glucose => note:2 AcetylCOA

Location

Back 81

4CO2.

6NADH + [H+].

2 FADH2.

2 ATP(GTP)

MtCH matrix(cytosol)

Front 82

Where does Gluconeogenesis occurs in mammals

Back 82

Liver and Kidney

Front 83

How is the trend of Molecular clock of Evolution . It's application

Back 83

It tends to be linear, b/c neutral mutations generally increases with time.It helps to measure features of evolutionary time. Species diverged less recently from a common ancestor have accumulated more genetic mutation and less genetically similar to one another (related) than the species more recently diverged.

It tends to be linear, b/c neutral mutations generally increases with time.It helps to measure features of evolutionary time. Species diverged less recently from a common ancestor have accumulated more genetic mutation and less genetically similar to one another (related) than the species more recently diverged.

Front 84

What are some common Residues, that can enable phophorylation.? Why

Back 84

Ser,Thr,Tyr.

Because of the presence of Hydroxyl group.

Front 85

Fecundity and Fitness

Back 85

Fecundity: Quantity of offspring produced per reproductive event.Fitness: Measure of reproductive success and survival, contributing to genetic contribution to future generations.

Front 86

Alternative Selection to NS that drives evolution

Back 86

Group selection

Artificial Selection

Front 87

Genetic drift: "Drifting"

Back 87

Genetic drift: Random fluctuations in allele frequencies within a population, leading to changes in gene pool composition over time, particularly in small populations.

Front 88

What are 2 sub categories of Genetic Drift

Back 88

Yes, there are two main subcategories of genetic drift:1. **Founder Effect:** Occurs when a small group of individuals establishes a new population in a new area, leading to a loss of genetic variation compared to the original population due to the limited gene pool of the founders.2. **Bottleneck Effect:** Occurs when a population undergoes a drastic reduction in size, leading to a significant loss of genetic diversity due to the limited number of individuals surviving the bottleneck event.

Front 89

Why is Autosomal recessive disorder like Tay-Sachs, problematic in inbreeding.

Back 89

Since it's recessive, chances of carriers producing offspring is high, increasing the frequency of people with the disease.

In other words,In inbreeding, autosomal recessive disorders like Tay-Sachs pose a higher risk due to increased mating between carriers, limited genetic diversity, and elevated prevalence of harmful alleles, leading to a greater likelihood of affected offspring.

Front 90

4 Reproductive Isolation,that are prezygotic.

" speciation "

Back 90

1. Habitat/Temporal

2. Behavioral Isolation

3. Mechanical isolation ( different tool)

4. Gametic Isolation

Front 91

3 post-zygotic Isolation

Back 91

1.Hybrid Sterility

2. Hybrid Inviability

3. Zygote Mortality

Front 92

What's std reduction potential

Back 92

Standard reduction potential (E°) measures a species' tendency to undergo reduction under standard conditions, indicating its strength as an oxidizing or reducing agent.

Front 93

In standard reduction potential,

More_____ the potential is better the reducing it is.

Back 93

-ve( study this)

Front 94

In standard reduction potential,

More_____ the potential is better the reducing it is.

Back 94

-ve( study this)

Front 95

Unit of ◇G

Back 95

Joules/mole

Front 96

DeltA G eqn

Back 96

dG= dH - TdS

Front 97

What are some situations where dG is +ve or -ve

Back 97

When both the change in ,H and S is +ve

Or when both are -ve

Front 98

Heat vs Temperature

Back 98

Heat is the transfer of energy between two bodies due to a temperature difference, while temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of particles in a substance.

Front 99

What's the bond in AtP that breaks to release energy

Back 99

Phosphoanhydride bond b/w gamma and beta phosphate

Front 100

What's the bond in AtP that breaks to release energy

Back 100

Phosphoanhydride bond b/w gamma and beta phosphate

Front 101

What is losing hydrogen synonymous to in a reaction?

What's oxidizing agent, and what's reducing agent?

Back 101

Synonymous to losing electron.

OA=> get reduced.

RA=> get oxidised.

Front 102

What is losing hydrogen synonymous to in a reaction?

What's oxidizing agent, and what's reducing agent?

Back 102

Synonymous to losing electron.

OA=> get reduced.

RA=> get oxidised.

Front 103

Flow of e- in wired Zn=>Cu2+ produces light energy.

Similarly explain "light" up of ATP💡 in cell.

Back 103

Flow of e- from Glucose => O2 ,through the wires of ETC makes ATP

Front 104

Why don't we just combust Glucose to harvest energy?

Back 104

Uncontrollable.

Lots of waste .needs High Activation energy body can't handle.

Front 105

Which complex of ETC doesn't directly pumps H+ ,in ETC?

Back 105

Complex II- but promotes the pumping III AND IV

Front 106

How many electrons does one NADH hand in at EtC

Back 106

2

Front 107

2 characteristics of redox centers in ETC

Back 107

Low affinity and High affinity ends.Adjacent points of the center are ideal for electron Jump.

Low affinity and High affinity ends.Adjacent points of the center are ideal for electron Jump.

Front 108

Where does final redox center of Complex I, tranfer the electrons to

Back 108

CoEz- Q

Front 109

Where does Complex II get the e- from

Back 109

FADH2

Front 110

Where does Complex II get the e- from

Back 110

FADH2

Front 111

Where does electrons go from Complex-II, does it pumps H+ with energy released in electron transfer. What's the other name for this complex

Back 111

Goes to CoEz Q(Ubiquinone).

No H+ transported.

Succinate Dehydrogenase.

Front 112

Mention Q's , accept/donations. In ETC

Back 112

Gets e- from Complex-I and II and donates it to complex III

Front 113

Where does ETc ends,.

What happens here.

What's the other name for it

Back 113

In Complex IV,

Four electrons brought by cytochrome C converts a molecule of Oxygen to two molecules of water.

This complex aka Cytochrome C oxidase.

Front 114

2 fn groups in Hexose?

Back 114

Aldehyde and multiple Alcohols

Front 115

What's D sugar? How do you recognize it?

Back 115

Dextro sugar, a type of sugar

In Fischer projection, hydroxyl on the highest numbered chiral carbon is on right!.

What's R and S?

Front 116

Define diastereomers,enantiomers and epimers, in simple concise terms

Back 116

Different at,

All chiral center=> enantiomer

Some but not all=>diastereomers

Just one => epimer (a diastereomer)

Front 117

Example of epimers in sugar

Back 117

Galactose and Glucose

Front 118

Example of epimers in sugar

Back 118

Galactose and Glucose

Front 119

All sugar structure understanding

Back 119

Glucose=> middle finger (all else OH to the side)thumb CHO, down CH2OH.

Galactose=> (C4 epimer) rap => 2 fingers in middle out ✌️ .

Mannose=> Gun( diastereomers of glucose)

Fructose =>

Allose=> all right (OH)

Fructose => index finger of close is carbonyl ,then Ch2OH(on both ends).

D - Ribose => 5 C . CHO [-all OH on right-] CH2OH.

Front 120

How many stereoisomers, how many D in it ,how many L and diastereomers

Back 120

2^n => so for sugar it's 16.8 L and 8 D8 D diastereomers, and same for L

2^n => so for sugar it's 16.8 L and 8 D8 D diastereomers, and same for L

2^n => so for sugar it's 16.8 L and 8 D8 D diastereomers, and same for L

Front 121

What two atoms forms bond in cyclic sugar.

Back 121

Carbonyl of C1, and oxygen atom on C5.

Front 122

What is mutarotation

Back 122

Mutarotation is the spontaneous interconversion between different anomers of a sugar in solution, typically between α and β forms.

Front 123

Difference b/w acetal and hemiacetal

Back 123

hemiacetal contains one -OH and one -OR group while acetal contains two -OR groups.

Front 124

What are sugars reducing agent

Back 124

Sugar can act as a reducing agent because it contains aldehyde or ketone functional groups, which are capable of donating electrons to another chemical species, thereby causing a reduction reaction. In the process, the sugar itself gets oxidized.

Front 125

What's sugars of lactose and linkage

Back 125

Galactose-Glucose

Beta,1,4-glycosidic

Front 126

Maltose , and it's linkageAlso, Sucrose.Which one is reducing and non reducing. Why

Maltose , and it's linkageAlso, Sucrose.Which one is reducing and non reducing. Why

Which one is reducing and non reducing. Why

Back 126

2 Glucose

Alpha,1,4

Glucose + Fructose (linked by anomeric carbon)

Sucrose is non reducing because there is no hemi acetal , where as Maltose is one acetal and other hemiacetal.

Front 127

Sugar without ______ is non reducing

Back 127

Hemiacetal.

( acetals are locked unlike hemiacetal-- hemiacetals have free OH , to get reduced at the anomeric carbon)

Front 128

What's the connection b/w sugars in cellulose

Back 128

Beta 1,4 (humans have Ez only for Alpha 1,4)

Front 129

What's starch , what are compositions. What are the linkages in each.

What is dextrin

Back 129

Mixture of amylose(10-30%) and amylopectin (70%-90%).

Amylose- alpha,1,4 glucose.

Amylopectin- same link, but occasional A-1,6(branching).

Dextrin is more hydrolyzed form of starch.

Starch>>Dextrin>>Maltose>>Glucose

Front 130

Why can't human digest cellulose but starch?

Back 130

B/c of B-1,4 link. No Ez to break it and digest.

Front 131

What's amylopectin similar to in animal. What's the similarity

Back 131

Glycogen,

Branching

Front 132

What are Tautomers, give a common example

Back 132

Tautomers are a specific type of constitutional isomers. They are compounds that can interconvert by the relocation of a hydrogen atom and a double bond. This rearrangement results in different connectivity between atoms but retains the same molecular formula. Tautomers often exist in equilibrium with each other and can be interconverted under appropriate conditions. A common example is the keto-enol tautomerism, where a ketone (keto form) can convert to an enol (enol form) through the transfer of a hydrogen atom and the rearrangement of double bonds.

Front 133

What is Pentose Phosphate Pathway for ?

Back 133

To produce sugar(Ribose) for RNA and DNA.

And reduce NADP.

ATP is used

Front 134

Start point of PPP

Back 134

G6P

Front 135

What are 2 phases of PPP

Back 135

1. OXIDATIVE PHASE

2.non oxidative phase

Front 136

What happens in Oxidative phase of PPP

Back 136

G6P oxidised=> Lactone(6PGL) (NADPH is formed here, you know) a useful coin.

Now Lactone => 6-Phosphogluconate.(+water).

6 phosphogluconate=> Ribulose-5-p (NaDPH is formed here as well) release C02.

Front 137

Non.Oxidative phase of PpP.Does ATP used or produced in PPP

Non.Oxidative phase of PpP.Does ATP used or produced in PPP

Back 137

No ATP used /produced

Front 138

Non.Oxidative phase of PpP.Does ATP used or produced in PPP

Non.Oxidative phase of PpP.Does ATP used or produced in PPP

Back 138

No ATP used /produced

Front 139

Rate limiting step of PPP

Back 139

G6P=> Lactone[6phosphogluconolactone] ( G6PDH)

Front 140

Why Nonoxidative PPP is all in all or cells activities

Back 140

The easy reversibility of the non-oxidative arm enables a dynamic equilibrium between the intermediates, where metabolic needs can be met largely by mass-action balance into various interconnected metabolic pathways based on substrate amounts.

Front 141

What's the intermediate used as precursor of Amino acid ,in PPP

Back 141

Ribose5P=>converted to erythrose-4-phosphate, which are utilized in the biosynthesis of aromatic amino acids like phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan.

Front 142

Where does PPP occur

Back 142

Cytosol

Front 143

Where does PPP occur

Back 143

Cytosol

Front 144

What Ez convert Ribulose-5-p to Ribose-5-P

Back 144

Phosphopentose Isomerase

Front 145

Uses of loaded NADP, NADPH

Back 145

helps to build molecules as well as reload antioxidants with electrons to shoot 🔫 reactive oxygen species.

Front 146

How much ATP is produced per Glucose

Back 146

29-30

Front 147

Products of Glycolysis

Back 147

2 ATP(net)+ 2 NADH + 2pyruvate

Front 148

In the absence of Oxygen, where does Pyruvate go, so that some ATP is produced and why

Back 148

To become Lactic acid(Lactic acid fermentation) This regenerates NAD+, which is essential for producing AtP In glycolysis .

To become Lactic acid(Lactic acid fermentation) This regenerates NAD+, which is essential for producing AtP In glycolysis .

Front 149

How much NaDH and Fadh2 ,does glycolysis and Krebs cycle makes

Back 149

NADH

Glycolysis=> 2

Pyruvate oxidation x 2=>2

krebs cycle ×2=> 4.

FADH2

Glycolysis=> 0

Pyruvate oxidation x 2=>0

krebs cycle ×2=> 2.

Front 150

What's Gluconeogenesis

Back 150

Producing Glucose from non-carbH source.

Front 151

Gluconeogenesis is almost Like reverse of Glycolysis, except ---?

What are they

Back 151

3 unique pathways (includes the bypassing of irreversible pathways of Glycolysis,)

1. Pyruvate =>i) Oxaloacetate =>ii)PEP

[i : pyruvate carboxylase +ATP][ii : PEP carboxykinase+GTP]

2. Fructose-1,6 bisphosphate => Fructose-6- phosphate( Fructose-1,6 bisphosphatase).

3. G6P=>Glucose (G6Phosphatase)

Front 152

Kinase and Phosphatase

Back 152

Kinase add Pi

Phopshatase remove Pi

Front 153

What's the Enzyme that works both in gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis

Back 153

Glucose 6 phosphatase

Front 154

Glycolysis regulation

Back 154

1. Glucose high, more pyruvate production.2. Atp allosteric regulator . Lots Glungen is favored.3. Glucagon/insulin4.transcriptional Transcription is slower ,allosteric faster , hormones intermediate

1. Glucose high, more pyruvate production.2. Atp allosteric regulator . Lots Glungen is favored.3. Glucagon/insulin4.transcriptional Transcription is slower ,allosteric faster , hormones intermediate

1. Glucose high, more pyruvate production.2. Atp allosteric regulator . Lots Glungen is favored.3. Glucagon/insulin4.transcriptional Transcription is slower ,allosteric faster , hormones intermediate

1. Glucose high, more pyruvate production.2. Atp allosteric regulator . Lots Glungen is favored.3. Glucagon/insulin4.transcriptional Transcription is slower ,allosteric faster , hormones intermediate

1. Glucose high, more pyruvate production.2. Atp allosteric regulator . Lots Glungen is favored.3. Glucagon/insulin4.transcriptional Transcription is slower ,allosteric faster , hormones intermediate

Front 155

What's the simple description of main function of TCA cycle, stating the first product

Back 155

Capturing energy from AcetylCOA into the form of high energy molecule(NADH,FADH2) that will carry electrons to ETC. One GTP/ATP is alsp produced in a cycle.

Front 156

How much ATP is made from One NADH, and how much from one FADH2

Back 156

NADH=> 2 to 3

FADH2=>1 to 2

Front 157

Location of TCA cycle

Back 157

MtCh- matrix

Front 158

What's the Ez that converts, Glycolysis end product to TCA cycle start product.

What is it called, whats produced in this .

Back 158

Pyruvate Dehydrogenase,

Pyruvate(3C)=>AcetylCOA (2C)

Pyruvate oxidation.

NADH and CO2

Front 159

What's the product that is regenerated at the end of the Krebs cycle.

Back 159

Oxaloacetate

Front 160

What's the Ez that convert Pyruvate to Oxaloacetate straight, when and why do body chose this pathway

Back 160

Pyruvate carboxylase

Gluconeogenesis.

When blood glucose level is super low.

Front 161

Tca products and flow- overview 📸.

How many steps in the cycle

Back 161

8

Front 162

What Ez forms Citric acid from what

Back 162

Ez : Citrate Synthase.

AcetylCOA +Oxaloacetate

Front 163

What's next from citric acid in TCA cycle

Back 163

Rearrangement

Citrate =>Isocitrate

Aconitase

Front 164

What's the step that is rate limiting also produces first NADH in TCA cycle

Back 164

Isocitrate => A-K-Glutarate

Oxidised , CO2 leaves

NADH is formed

Done By isocitrate dehydrogenase

Front 165

What happens to A-K-Glutarate in TCA cycle.

Mention Carbon number, gains,Ez

Back 165

5C AKG is converted to 4C Succinyl-CoA, by AKG dehydrogenase.

NADH is formed.

Front 166

When is GTP formed in TCA.

Steps

Back 166

When Succinyl-CoA is switched to Succinate by Succinyl-CoA synthetase

Front 167

Step in which FADH2 is made in TCA cycle

Back 167

Succinate => Fumarate

By Succinate Dehydrogenase.

Dehydrogenase is there when naDh or fadh is made.

No reduction in carbon number in this step

Front 168

What does the cycle do with Fumarate

Back 168

Adds water and converts it to Malate. Done by Fumarase

Front 169

What's the final step of TCA cycle

Back 169

Malate is oxidized to Oxaloacetate.

Forms NADH.

Done by Malate Dehydrogenase.

Front 170

When does 2 C of AcetylCOA leaves in the TCA cycle.

Back 170

When A-K-Glutarate formed from Isocitrate and also when it is converted to succinyl-CoA

Front 171

So Glucose has 6 carbon. It's oxidised to carbon dioxide.

What are those steps where these Carbon leaves( C x 6)

Back 171

1 each in Pyruvate to AcetylCOA =2

2 each in cycle (IC=>AKG=SCOA)=4

Total 6

Front 172

How does all food we end up in the cycle?

Back 172

If sugar, Glucose =>pyruvate=>cycle.

If Protein=> AcetylCOA or enter as any other intermediate.

Fat=> AcetylCOA

Front 173

When ATP is high, wheredoes Acetyl Coa it goes to?!

Back 173

Fatty acid synthesis

(Not to cycle, as we have enoughATP)

Front 174

How is AcetylCOA production from Glucose regulated

Back 174

Allosteric regulation of Pyruvate Dehydrogenase.

Activators: AMP,NAD+,CoA,Pyruvate,Ca2+(excercise).

Inhibitors: ACOa,NADH,ATP, fatty acids.

Front 175

Is there hormonal ctrl of TCA cycle

Back 175

NO.

Front 176

3 spots of TCA cycle regulation and their inhibitors and activators

Back 176

3 Ez,are allosterically regulated

1. Citrate Synthase (inhibitors:NADH,ATP,citrate)

(Activator: ADP

2.Isocitrate Dehydrogenase (inhibitors:NADH,ATP)

(Activator: ADP,Ca2+)

3. A-K-Glutarate Dehydrogenase (inhibitor:NADH,succinyl-CoA,)

(Activator: Ca2+)

Front 177

What's the relationship between noncompetitive and uncompetitive inhibitio

Back 177

uncompetitive inhibition is a subcategory of noncompetitive inhibition. Both noncompetitive and uncompetitive inhibition involve the binding of an inhibitor to the enzyme, but they differ in the specific sites of binding and their effects on enzyme kinetics. Uncompetitive inhibition is a subtype of noncompetitive inhibition where the inhibitor binds only to the enzyme-substrate complex, while in general noncompetitive inhibition, the inhibitor can bind to either the enzyme or the enzyme-substrate complex.

Front 178

How does ruminants digest cellulose

Back 178

It's stomach house a bacteria that can breakdown cellulose

Front 179

In Genetics, what's the term used, if all of all the individuals showed the phenotype associated with the genotype, but shows it slightly different than others. And what's the term used when the term associated with certain percentage of population not expressing the phenotype corresponding to a genotype at all.

Back 179

Variable expressivity.

Penetrance (incomplete, or less than 100%)

Front 180

What does Mesoderm gives rise to

Back 180

KUMB

Front 181

Endoderm give rise to

Back 181

Lining of internal organs

Front 182

Ectoderm develops into

Back 182

Nervous system,eyes,ear,Hair, Nail, (Note:Ecto means Outer)

Front 183

What are two hormones that are elevated, when person has low blood glucose

Back 183

Glucagon(stimulates Glycogenolysis),and Cortisol (stimulates Gluconeogenesis)

Front 184

What decreases blood calcium levels.

Back 184

Calcitonin

Front 185

What increases plasma calcium level

Back 185

PTH and Calcitriol

Front 186

When does cross over occur in meiosis

Back 186

Prophase-I

Front 187

Founder effect

Back 187

The founder effect is a phenomenon in genetics where a small group of individuals from a larger population establish a new population, leading to reduced genetic diversity compared to the original population. This can result in certain genetic traits becoming more common in the new population due to chance.

Front 188

Pleitropy

Back 188

Pleiotropy is a genetic phenomenon where a single gene influences multiple traits or characteristics. In other words, a mutation in one gene can lead to various effects on an organism's phenotype, often seemingly unrelated. This concept highlights the interconnectedness of genes and their effects on an organism's overall phenotype.

Front 189

What creates antibodies to Rh factor, Rh- or Rh+.

Back 189

Rh-

Front 190

In cellular respiration,

Everything except ____ happens in MTCH

Back 190

Glycolysis (cytoplasm)

Front 191

2 main steps of Oxidative phosphorylation

Back 191

Oxidation of NADH/FADH2

Phosphorylation by Atpase

Front 192

Where does NADH donates its electron first to? What's the Ez name

Back 192

Complex 1, NADH dehydrogenase.

Front 193

Where does FADH2 gives its electrons to ?

Back 193

COMPLEX 2/ SUCCINATE DEHYDROGENASE

Front 194

When Succinate get oxidised to Fumarate. What is getting reduced, what's the Enzymes. Where else the Ez plays a role.

Back 194

Reduce , FAD to FADH2 ( which reduce Q to QH2).In Compex 2, of ETC

Reduce , FAD to FADH2 ( which reduce Q to QH2).In Compex 2, of ETC

Front 195

What's the only membrane bound Ez of Krebs cycle

Back 195

Succinate Dehydrogenase

Front 196

Describe the role of an only membrane bound Ez of Krebs cycle ,with ETC

Back 196

Complex II (succinate dehydrogenase) in the electron transport chain reduces FAD to FADH2 during the conversion of succinate to fumarate in the Krebs cycle. Then, FADH2 donates its electrons to ubiquinone (Q), converting it to ubiquinol (QH2) within the electron transport chain.

Front 197

Ez that pumps proton on ETC

Back 197

Cx,1,3,4 .

All except Cx2

Front 198

Where does Q gets electrons from and where does it deliver

Back 198

From NADH through Complex 1 and from FADH2 through Complex 2.These electrons are then delivered to Complex3 or ( cytochrom bc1 complex).

From NADH through Complex 1 and from FADH2 through Complex 2.These electrons are then delivered to Complex3 or ( cytochrom bc1 complex).

Front 199

Where does electron goes from Complex 3 and what happens then

Back 199

It goes to Cytochrome C, which then pass it to complex 4 ( cyctochrome C oxidase)

Front 200

What's Complex 4 of ETC

Back 200

Cytochrome C oxidase.

Front 201

What's complex 3 ,In etc?

Back 201

Cyctochrome bc1 complex

Front 202

How much QH2 one FADH2 produce, and how about one NADH.How does it corresponds to electrons.

How much QH2 one FADH2 produce, and how about one NADH.How does it corresponds to electrons.And the electrons to H+, and then ATP.

And the electrons to H+, and then ATP.

Back 202

1. one FADH2 molecule typically generates enough energy to produce approximately 1 to 2 molecules of ubiquinol (QH2), corresponding to 2 to 4 electrons in total..

2 One NADH molecule donates two electrons to the electron transport chain. As a result, one NADH molecule typically generates enough energy to produce approximately 1.5 to 2.5 molecules of ubiquinol (QH2), corresponding to 3 to 5 electrons in total..

For NADH:Each NADH molecule generally contributes enough energy to pump approximately 10 protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane.This proton gradient typically generates enough energy to produce about 2.5 to 3 ATP molecules through the process of oxidative phosphorylation.For FADH2:Each FADH2 molecule generally contributes enough energy to pump approximately 6 protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane.This proton gradient typically generates enough energy to produce about 1.5 to 2 ATP molecules through oxidative phosphorylation.

Front 203

What happens to electrons in Cx 3 of ETC

Back 203

e- are picked up by cyctochrome C, causing Cx 3 to pump Proton.

CYT-C tranfers this electron to Cx-4

Front 204

Where do electrons come from, to reduce Oxygen to water in ETC.

The last stop of e-

Back 204

Cx- 4

Front 205

If there is no oxygen in cell, Oxidative phosphorylation doesn't take place? What does cell do with the glucose

Back 205

Lactic acid fermentation(regenerati g NAd+), so the Glycolysis repeats and produce 2 net AtP.

Front 206

How much atp does, each NaDh and Fadh2 makes, ideally.

Back 206

NADH=> 2 to 3 ATP

FADH2=> 1 to 2 ATP

Front 207

Brief picture,

h+ is pumped across mtch memb, which creates a battery like pressure which then flow down to make AtP. Where does the energy comes from, to pump this proton, Ultimately?

Back 207

During cellular respiration, the oxidation reactions of fuel molecules, such as glucose or fatty acids, liberate energy. This energy is captured by electron carriers like NADH and FADH2. As these carriers shuttle electrons along the electron transport chain embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane, the energy released( as it shuttle down) is utilized to pump protons across the membrane.

Front 208

Whats the word for passage of H+ through AtP synthase,producing AtP

Back 208

Chemiosmosis

Front 209

Whats the phosphorylation of ADP, apart from Chemiosmosis called

Back 209

Substrate level phosphorylation

Front 210

What's the main regulator of ETC

Back 210

Level of ATP/ADP( also level of NADH from previous pathways or NAD+ but not as much role atp).

No hormones/allosteric regulator (previous pathways have them)

Front 211

What's Necrosis

Back 211

Uncontrolled cell death.

.its caused by irreversible damage, often due to injury, toxins, or lack of blood supply, leading to inflammation and tissue damage.

No Ez generally required

Front 212

What's the Ez for controlled cell death(Apoptosis)

Back 212

Capsase (family of protease enzymes)

Front 213

What are some uses of Apoptosis

Back 213

- Embryonic devpt. Eg: Hands digits formation- DNA damaged cell(unrepairable).- infected cell (virus).- Environmental stress.Detachment, deprivation or lack of signal reception(GH)- Reactive Oxygen Species: O-, •OH, H2O2. : if their damage is beyond the protection teams, cell goes apoptosis

Front 214

What organelle does Apoptosis, what are the steps.

Back 214

Mitochondria.

Cellular stress triggers activation of pro-apoptotic proteins (e.g., Bax/Bak)=>Activated Bax/Bak form pores in outer mitochondrial membrane=>.Release of pro-apoptotic proteins like cytochrome c into cytosol=>.Cytochrome c binds Apaf-1, forming apoptosome=>.Apoptosome activates caspase cascade(including activation of Nucleases)

Front 215

What regulates apoptosis

Back 215

Bcl-2 family of Proteins(regulates memb-permeability)

2 types

Pro-apoptotic P.

And Anti-aptotic P.

Front 216

Show the pumping of H+ per 2e- which is transferred either by NADH/FADH2.

How much H+ flow is required per ATP.

So what's the final NADH/FADH2 per ATP

Back 216

Per 2e- =>

- CX-1 Pumps 4H+- CX-3 Pumps 4H+- CX-4 pumps 2H+.

4H+ per ATP.

1 NADH 2.5ATP

1 FADH2 1.5 ATP.

Total, 30-32 ATP per Glucose

Front 217

What's Genetic imprinting

Back 217

Genomic imprinting involves the addition of chemical tags, such as methyl groups, to specific regions of DNA during gamete formation. These tags can affect gene expression by silencing one copy of the gene, either from the mother or the father, while allowing the other copy to be expressed. As a result, the expression of imprinted genes is monoallelic, meaning only one allele (either from the mother or the father) is active, while the other allele is inactive due to the imprinting process.

Front 218

Distinguish between Chromatin,chromatid,chromosome I'm simple single sentence

Back 218

Chromatin is the relaxed form of DNA, chromatids are the replicated strands of DNA joined by a centromere, and chromosomes are condensed structures formed from chromatids during cell division.

Front 219

TERPENES

Back 219

Terpenes are organic compounds found in plants that contribute to their scent and flavor. They serve as the building blocks for steroid hormones, which are essential for various biological functions including metabolism, immune response, and reproduction..

Front 220

How many 6 membered ring and 5 membered ring in steroids.

Back 220

3 - 6💍 1-5💍 : 2BHK

Front 221

Simplest class of sphingolipids

Back 221

Ceramide ( H=> fn group))

Front 222

What's 6 in omega 6

Back 222

6th bond is double bond, counting from methyl end

Front 223

How many cycle of beta oxidation for complete digestion of stearic acid

Back 223

8

Front 224

Name some ketone bodies. Used for energy

Back 224

Acetoacetate

Beta-hydroxybutyrate (BHB)

Acetone

Front 225

Which organn cannot utilize ketone bodies but produces them by ketogenesis

Back 225

Liver

Front 226

Which organn cannot utilize ketone bodies but produces them by ketogenesis

Back 226

Liver

Front 227

Site of fatty acid, Synthesis and Breakdown(beta oxidation)

Back 227

Cytoplasm and Mitochondria (inner mitochondrial memb)

Front 228

Site of fatty acid, Synthesis and Breakdown(beta oxidation)

Back 228

Cytoplasm and Mitochondria(also,ER(alpha and beta) and peroxisome(omega)

Front 229

What's AcetylCOA converted to ,so that it can be shuttled to cytoplasm for FA synthesis

Back 229

Citrate

Front 230

What's AcetylCOA converted to ,so that it can be shuttled to cytoplasm for FA synthesis

Back 230

Citrate

Front 231

Alcohol fermentation steps

Back 231

Decarboxylation: Pyruvate is converted into acetaldehyde by the enzyme pyruvate decarboxylase.Reduction: Acetaldehyde is then reduced to ethanol by the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase.(NAD+ is regenerated here by getting NADH oxidized)Decarboxylation: Pyruvate is converted into acetaldehyde by the enzyme pyruvate decarboxylase.Reduction: Acetaldehyde is then reduced to ethanol by the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase.(NAD+ is regenerated here by getting NADH oxidized).Note : CO2 is released in first step . Which is not present in lactic acid fermentation.

Decarboxylation: Pyruvate is converted into acetaldehyde by the enzyme pyruvate decarboxylase.Reduction: Acetaldehyde is then reduced to ethanol by the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase.(NAD+ is regenerated here by getting NADH oxidized)Decarboxylation: Pyruvate is converted into acetaldehyde by the enzyme pyruvate decarboxylase.Reduction: Acetaldehyde is then reduced to ethanol by the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase.(NAD+ is regenerated here by getting NADH oxidized).Note : CO2 is released in first step . Which is not present in lactic acid fermentation.

Decarboxylation: Pyruvate is converted into acetaldehyde by the enzyme pyruvate decarboxylase.Reduction: Acetaldehyde is then reduced to ethanol by the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase.(NAD+ is regenerated here by getting NADH oxidized)Decarboxylation: Pyruvate is converted into acetaldehyde by the enzyme pyruvate decarboxylase.Reduction: Acetaldehyde is then reduced to ethanol by the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase.(NAD+ is regenerated here by getting NADH oxidized).Note : CO2 is released in first step . Which is not present in lactic acid fermentation.

Decarboxylation: Pyruvate is converted into acetaldehyde by the enzyme pyruvate decarboxylase.Reduction: Acetaldehyde is then reduced to ethanol by the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase.(NAD+ is regenerated here by getting NADH oxidized)Decarboxylation: Pyruvate is converted into acetaldehyde by the enzyme pyruvate decarboxylase.Reduction: Acetaldehyde is then reduced to ethanol by the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase.(NAD+ is regenerated here by getting NADH oxidized).Note : CO2 is released in first step . Which is not present in lactic acid fermentation.

Front 232

Why Cori cycle.?

Back 232

The Cori cycle allows lactate, produced as a byproduct of anaerobic metabolism in skeletal muscle, to be recycled and used as a substrate for glucose synthesis in the liver. This process helps maintain blood glucose levels and provides an alternative energy source for tissues during periods of high energy demand or low oxygen availability.

Front 233

What does Beta cells of Pancreas secrete

Back 233

Insulin

Front 234

Pyruvate kinase regulation .

2 ways of inhibition by AtP

Back 234

Pyruvate kinase can be regulated through both allosteric inhibition by ATP and by phosphorylation. The allosteric inhibition occurs when ATP binds directly to pyruvate kinase, while phosphorylation involves the action of a kinase enzyme that adds a phosphate group to pyruvate kinase, reducing its activity. These mechanisms provide dual control over pyruvate kinase activity, allowing for fine-tuning of glycolysis in response to cellular energy needs.

Front 235

Regulation of PFK-1

Back 235

- Allosteric inhibition by ATP- Activation by AMP and ADP- Inhibition by citrate- pH changes- Activation by fructose-2,6-bisphosphate- Covalent modification through phosphorylation and dephosphorylation

Front 236

What's the Ez irreversibly commit Glucose to Glycolysis

Back 236

PFK-1

Front 237

1. When homozygous(AA or aa) cross with heterozygous (Aa).

1. When homozygous(AA or aa) cross with heterozygous (Aa).2. When Aa ×Aa3. When AA ×aa

2. When Aa ×Aa

3. When AA ×aa

Back 237

1. It's 50% homozygous (AA or aa)

50% heterozygous .

2.1AA : 2Aa : 1aa

3. All Aa.

Front 238

What's penetrance in Genetics

Back 238

Penetrance refers to the likelihood or degree to which a specific genetic trait or mutation is expressed in individuals who carry the corresponding gene. In simpler terms, it's the chance that if you have a particular gene, you'll actually show the associated trait or characteristic. High penetrance means most people with the gene will show the trait, while low penetrance means only some will exhibit it, or they might show it to a lesser extent.

Front 239

Name one transcriptional control features found in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

Back 239

Promoter repressor.

Front 240

Tay Sach, issue

Back 240

In Tay-Sachs disease, there's a malfunction in the HEXA gene, which encodes the alpha subunit of the enzyme beta-hexosaminidase A (Hex-A). This enzyme is responsible for breaking down a fatty substance called GM2 ganglioside. Without functional Hex-A, GM2 ganglioside accumulates in nerve cells, particularly in the brain, leading to the progressive neurological deterioration characteristic of Tay-Sachs disease.

Front 241

Inclusion cell disease,

Back 241

Inclusion cell disease, or mucolipidosis II, is caused by mutations in the GNPTAB gene, leading to a deficiency of an enzyme involved in protein transport to lysosomes. This results in the abnormal accumulation of substances within lysosomes, causing cellular dysfunction and the characteristic features of the disease.

Front 242

What's DNA gyrase

Back 242

DNA gyrase is a bacterial enzyme that relieves strain in DNA by introducing negative supercoils, aiding in DNA replication and transcription.

Front 243

What's responsible for movement of microvili and cilia

Back 243

Microvilli are moved by microfilaments (actin filaments), while cilia are moved by microtubules.

Front 244

What's the max hydrogen bond water can form

Back 244

4

Front 245

What's the difference between Kinetochore and Centromere

Back 245

Kinetochores are the macromolecular protein complexes that govern chromosome movement by binding spindle microtubules during mitosis and meiosis. Centromeres are the specific chromosomal regions that serve as the platform on which kinetochores assemble.

Front 246

What gets pulled apart in Anaphase-I ,of meiosis-I.

And what sticks together

Back 246

Homologous chromosomes.

Sister chromatids.

Front 247

What's glycogen ? Where is it mostly stored

Back 247

Polymer of glucose.

Mainly liver and also in muscles.

First source in fasting state

Front 248

How many calories per gram in glycogen/muscles and fats

Back 248

4kilocalorie per Gram in glycogen and protein.

9kcal per gram in adipose

Front 249

Triacylglycerol

Back 249

Ester derived from glycerol and 3 fatty

Front 250

Advantage of fat as energy source

Back 250

Hydrophobic(less weight)

No other usage

Long chains to store lots of energy.

Front 251

What Ez breaksdown Fat?

What secretes it

Back 251

Lipases. Pancreas

Front 252

What helps with Lipase to breakdown fat? And is secreted by?

Back 252

Bile. Liver

Front 253

Where is TAG + other fat molecules packed into in small intestine, to ease their travel through bloodstream.Where does it leave from intestine to travel as capillaries around intestine has smaller fenestration.

Where is TAG + other fat molecules packed into in small intestine, to ease their travel through bloodstream.Where does it leave from intestine to travel as capillaries around intestine has smaller fenestration.And where does this takes it to? Finally where does the other organ or tissues absorbs this fat

And where does this takes it to? Finally where does the other organ or tissues absorbs this fat

Back 253

Chylomicron(lipoP.)

Lacteal (lymphatic capillary).

Drain To right or left thoracic duct into veins near neck and shoulder.

This goes through heart,lungs and get drained to Capillary bed where it is absorbed by other tissues.

Lipoprotein Lipase, in the Lipoprotein get activated and breakdown TGA to FAs and glycerol

Front 254

What tissues or cell doesn't takes up FAT for energy?

Back 254

RBC (NO MTCH)

and Brain 🧠(bbb)

Front 255

All macromolecules except ____1, gets into ⇒capillarybed⇒vein, directly to ⇒liver. How does it gets to liver?2.

Liver converts extra glucose to FA and where does it packs this into?3

Back 255

1.Fat.

2.Lymphatic vessels.

3.VLDL (also adds chilomicron remnants to this)

Front 256

What stimulates adipocyte hormone receptor. What travels along with FA in order to ease its journey through aqueous environment.

Back 256

Decrease in level of insulin and increase in Glucagon. FA gets released into blood stream.

Albumin (made by liver)

Front 257

Why is liver big consumer of FA released by adipose in fasting

Back 257

Liver takes it for energy to perform gluconeogenesis and raise the blood glucose level b/c Rbc or brain doesn't take FAs

Front 258

What hormone stimulate/inhibit glucose conversion to FA

Back 258

Insulin ^ stimulate. Down ,inhibit

Front 259

Characteristics of Chordata

Back 259

Characteristics of Chordata. Animals in the phylum Chordata share five key chacteristics that appear at some stage during their development: a notochord, a dorsal hollow (tubular) nerve cord, pharyngeal gill arches or slits, a post-anal tail, and an endostyle/thyroid gland

Front 260

All chordates are protostomes?All chordates have vertebrates?

All chordates are protostomes?All chordates have vertebrates?True/False

True/False

True/False

Back 260

Both False.

Front 261

Peripatric,parapatric,allopatric, Sympatric speciation.

Back 261

Peripatric (peri = near, patric = place): New species formed from a small population isolated at the edge of a larger population.

Parapatric (para = beside, patric = place): New species formed from a continuously distributed population

Allopatric (allo = other, patric = place): New species formed from geographically isolated populations.

Sympatric (sym = same, patric = place): New species formed from within the range of the ancestral population.

Front 262

Bacillus species characteristics.

Back 262

Bacillus species are rod-shaped, endospore-forming aerobic or facultatively anaerobic, Gram-positive bacteria

Front 263

Endospores ?

Back 263

Endospores are highly resistant structures formed by certain bacteria, allowing them to survive harsh conditions, remain viable for long periods, and serve as reservoirs for replenishment of bacterial populations. They are also resistant to disinfection and can be used as biological weapons.

Front 264

Conjugation transduction transformation

Back 264

Front 265

Episomes vs Plasmids

Back 265

Front 266

Fungus that only reproduce asexually is called

Back 266

Deuteromycetes

Front 267

What's a phase contrast microscope

Back 267

A phase-contrast microscope enhances the contrast of transparent specimens, like living cells, by converting differences in light phase into brightness variations, enabling clear visualization without staining.

Front 268

What's a phase contrast microscope

Back 268

A phase-contrast microscope enhances the contrast of transparent specimens, like living cells, by converting differences in light phase into brightness variations, enabling clear visualization without staining.

Front 269

Parthenogenesis

Back 269

Parthenogenesis is a form of reproduction where an egg develops into an offspring without fertilization by sperm, resulting in genetic clones of the mother. It occurs naturally in certain animals, plants, and invertebrates, allowing reproduction without a mate and potentially limiting genetic diversity.

Front 270

Can virus have both DNA and RNA

Back 270

viruses can contain either DNA or RNA as their genetic material, but not both simultaneously

Front 271

Can virus have both DNA and RNA

Back 271

viruses can contain either DNA or RNA as their genetic material, but not both simultaneously

Front 272

What's capsomers

Back 272

Capsomers are protein subunits that compose the capsid of a virus, enclosing its genetic material and aiding in viral entry into host cells. They also contain epitopes that stimulate immune responses, influencing the antigenicity of the virus.

Front 273

How does lysogenic virus cause tumor

Back 273

Lysogenic viruses can cause neoplasms (abnormal growths of tissue, often referred to as tumors) through a process known as viral oncogenesis. In this process, the viral genome integrates into the host cell's DNA during the lysogenic phase, disrupting normal cellular functions and potentially activating oncogenes (genes that promote cell growth and division) or inactivating tumor suppressor genes (genes that inhibit cell growth and division). This disruption can lead to uncontrolled cell proliferation and the formation of neoplasms. Additionally, the expression of viral genes and the production of viral proteins can further contribute to cellular transformation and tumor development.

Front 274

How is acetyl coa in mitochondria shuttled to cytoplasm for Fatty acid Synthesis

Back 274

It's converted to citrate by adding OxAcetate , then it's taken in citrate shuttle.from Cytoplasm it is disassembled. (By ATP- citrate lyase)

Front 275

How is acetyl coa in mitochondria shuttled to cytoplasm for Fatty acid Synthesis

Back 275

It's converted to citrate by adding OxAcetate , then it's taken in citrate shuttle.from Cytoplasm it is disassembled. (By ATP- citrate lyase) This conversion can reduce NADP to NADPH (which powers anabolic rxn including FA Synthesis)

It's converted to citrate by adding OxAcetate , then it's taken in citrate shuttle.from Cytoplasm it is disassembled. (By ATP- citrate lyase) This conversion can reduce NADP to NADPH (which powers anabolic rxn including FA Synthesis)

Front 276

What transports fatty acid Synthesised in liver

Back 276

The liver synthesizes VLDL, which transports triglycerides synthesized in the liver to peripheral tissues for energy or storage. VLDL particles are rich in triglycerides and also contain cholesterol and other lipids.

Front 277

What ez converts acetyl coa to melanoyl coa in FA Synthesis

Back 277

Catalyzed by acetyl coa carboxylase. Also Powered by ATP.

Front 278

Beta oxidation.

Transport of FA to mtch also?

Back 278

C1. Activation: Fatty acids become fatty acyl-CoA- by acyl-CoA synthetase, using ATP

2. Transport: Fatty acyl-CoA enters outer mitochondrial memb. Carnitine attached instead of cOA=> by carnitine acyl transferase-I

3. Translocation: Fatty acylcarnitine moves across inner membrane through ACT transporter.(acyl carnitine translocase)

4. Reconversion: Fatty acylcarnitine reverts to fatty acyl-CoA.,(carnitine acyl transferase-II. (Carnitine goes to cytoplasm for further job- pumped back by ACT)

5. Beta-Oxidation: oxidation of 4 steps : Fatty acyl-CoA undergoes beta-oxidation for energy.(charge up FAD/NAD).

Note : Beta oxidation refers to ckeaving the bond (oxidation) b/w alpha and Beta carbon. forming the Acetyl COa , and acyl COA

Front 279

Beta oxidation.

Transport of FA to mtch also?

Back 279

C1. Activation: Fatty acids become fatty acyl-CoA- by acyl-CoA synthetase, using ATP

2. Transport: Fatty acyl-CoA enters outer mitochondrial memb. Carnitine attached instead of cOA=> by carnitine acyl transferase-I

3. Translocation: Fatty acylcarnitine moves across inner membrane through ACT transporter.(acyl carnitine translocase)

4. Reconversion: Fatty acylcarnitine reverts to fatty acyl-CoA.,(carnitine acyl transferase-II. (Carnitine goes to cytoplasm for further job- pumped back by ACT)

5. Beta-Oxidation: oxidation of 4 steps : Fatty acyl-CoA undergoes beta-oxidation for energy.(charge up FAD/NAD).

Note : Beta oxidation refers to ckeaving the bond (oxidation) b/w alpha and Beta carbon. forming the Acetyl COa , and acyl COA

Front 280

What's the first product of FA Synthesis. And what are the regulators of these process

Back 280

Acetyl-cOA=>Malonyl-COa(x AcetylCOA)=> palmitic acid

Hormone regulation: insulin+/glucagon -.

Allosteric: citrate +, long chain FA, inhibitor.

Front 281

What is used to reduce c=c in FA Synthesis. And the enzyme?

Back 281

NADPH.

FA synthase

Front 282

Two ways energy is harnessed in fatty acid oxidation

Back 282

1. Breakdown can recharge NAD/FAD.2. Plus, mainly, AcetylCOA(#C÷2) can enter Kreb cycle.

1. Breakdown can recharge NAD/FAD.2. Plus, mainly, AcetylCOA(#C÷2) can enter Kreb cycle. In case of palmitic acid..16carbon1.=> 27ATP2.=>8 ×10 =80

In case of palmitic acid..16carbon

1.=> 27ATP

2.=>8 ×10 =80

Front 283

Ez for FA Synthesis is in cytoplasm, how about oxidation.

Back 283

MTCh

Front 284

Why is it referred beta oxidation

Back 284

Beta oxidation refers to ckeaving the bond (oxidation) b/w alpha and Beta carbon. forming the Acetyl COa , and acyl COA

Front 285

Fatty acids

Back 285

Front 286

Fatty acid oxidation

Back 286

Front 287

Beta oxidation steps inside matrix

Back 287

1. Using FAD(to eat electron) and dehydrogenase, hydrogen is removed from α and β carbon, giving rise to double bond between them.

2. It's then hydratase-ed by adding water , forming hydroxyl group at beta carbon.

3. Another dehydrogenase is employed to oxidise the hydroxy and make a carbonyl at beta carbon. (NAD takes up the e-)..

4. Now, withe the help of β-ketothiolase and addition of HSCoa, cleaves between alpha and beta form the fatty acyl coa with 2 carbon less and another acetyl-COA

Front 288

The rate-limiting enzyme of beta-oxidation is _______ It controls the entry of fatty acyl-CoA into the mitochondria for oxidation.

Back 288

carnitine acyltransferase I (CAT-1). It controls the entry of fatty acyl-CoA into the mitochondria for oxidation.

Front 289

What's allosteric inhibitor of FA oxidation

Back 289

Malonyl coa

Front 290

Do you use Fatty acid for gluconeogenesis?

Back 290

Fatty acids cannot be directly converted into glucose because they are metabolized into acetyl-CoA, which cannot be converted back into the key intermediate, pyruvate, needed for gluconeogenesis. Therefore, fatty acids are not typically used as substrates for gluconeogenesis. Even if it makes Oxaloacetate in cycle no net gain..

But there are some long chain FA products that can invest in glucose production

Proteins,lactate,glycerol are used

Front 291

What else apart from AA, contribute to gluconeogenesis

Back 291

Gluconeogenesis: Glycerol enters the gluconeogenesis pathway primarily in the liver. In this process, glycerol is converted into dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP), an intermediate of glycolysis, through a series of enzymatic reactions. DHAP can then be converted into glucose, contributing to the maintenance of blood glucose levels.

Also lactate (converted to pyruvate)

Front 292

When does P. Degradation takes place in fasting

Back 292

P. Degradation occur in first 2 to 3 days of starvation, after that Body switch to Ketosis (AcetylCOA => β-hydroxybutarate, and acetoacetate) P. Degradation rate decreases.

Front 293

When does P. Degradation takes place in fasting

Back 293

P. Degradation occur in first 2 to 3 days of starvation, after that Body switch to Ketosis (AcetylCOA => β-hydroxybutarate, and acetoacetate) P. Degradation rate decreases.

Front 294

What can be P. Used for once it gets into Liver

Back 294

- It can be used for P. Synthesis- If extra ⇒making Glucose(and stored⇒Glycogen )- And/or Fatty acid(and stored⇒Adipose tissue).- Also send to other tissues/cells for P. Synthesis there (eg:muscle )

Front 295

What are ketogenic and glucogenic AA

Back 295

-Ketogenic⇒if it feed to make precursor for FA(AcetylCOA/acetoacetyl coa) (exclusive: KL)

- Glucogenic⇒if it feeds to make precursors for Glucose (by entering as some form of intermediate :- Pyruvate- Ox-acetate- Intermediates of K)

Front 296

What's the main source of energy in fasting state

Back 296

In a fasting state, when glucose levels are low and glycogen stores become depleted, the body primarily relies on fat metabolism for energy. Specifically, fatty acids derived from stored triglycerides in adipose tissue become the main source of energy through a process called beta-oxidation. This process breaks down fatty acids into acetyl-CoA molecules, which enter the citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle) to produce ATP, the body's primary energy currency. Additionally, during fasting, some amino acids derived from protein breakdown can also be converted into glucose via gluconeogenesis to provide energy for tissues that require glucose, such as the brain and red blood cells. However, fatty acid oxidation remains the predominant source of energy during prolonged fasting periods.

Front 297

What's Urea cycle

Back 297

The urea cycle is a metabolic pathway that occurs primarily in the liver and plays a crucial role in the removal of toxic ammonia from the body. Ammonia is a byproduct of protein metabolism and can be harmful if it accumulates in the bloodstream. The urea cycle converts ammonia into urea, a less toxic compound that can be excreted in the urine.

Front 298

What the bond in ATP

Back 298

Anhydride

Front 299

_______ deflects least in mass spectrometer. Heaviest/lightest

Back 299

Heaviest ion

Front 300

How is Unsaturated fatty acid dealt in beta oxidation

Back 300

Unsaturated fatty acids in beta-oxidation are isomerized to trans forms, then undergo standard beta-oxidation. Double bonds are reduced by enzymes before continuing the process.

Front 301

Suppose there is two alleles for color and you get 100% different color offspring by crossing two different color parents A&B. What dominance is this And when you self cross this offspring C, what do you get as colour.

Suppose there is two alleles for color and you get 100% different color offspring by crossing two different color parents A&B. What dominance is this And when you self cross this offspring C, what do you get as colour.

Back 301

Incomplete dominance.

50% same as offspring C..

25% A , 25% B

Front 302

Suppose there is two alleles for color and you get 100% different color offspring by crossing two different color parents A&B. What dominance is this And when you self cross this offspring C, what do you get as colour.

Suppose there is two alleles for color and you get 100% different color offspring by crossing two different color parents A&B. What dominance is this And when you self cross this offspring C, what do you get as colour.

Back 302

Incomplete dominance.

50% same as offspring C..

25% A , 25% B

Front 303

Substanti niagra(Hindbrain/midbrain/forebrain)

Back 303

Midbrain

Front 304

Medulla (Hindbrain/midbrain/forebrain)

Back 304

Hindbrain- rhombencephalon

Front 305

Temporal lobe (Hindbrain/midbrain/forebrain)

Back 305

Forebrain

Front 306

Total ATP generation from one Glucose: Pro vs Euk.

Per Krebs.

Per PDH

Per Glycolysis **

Back 306

Front 307

Can CO2 and O2 pass through cell membrane?

Back 307

Yes. Easily and fastly

Front 308

By switching the _________ of an ion , you can switch the volt(memb potential)-

typically ____ion has high _____, hence membrane potential is closer to its ________ potential.

Back 308

permeability.

K+, high permeability.

Equilibrium

Front 309

By switching the _________ of an ion , you can switch the volt(memb potential)-

typically ____ion has high _____, hence membrane potential is closer to its ________ potential.

Back 309

permeability.

K+, high permeability.

Equilibrium