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122 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
- 3rd side (hint)
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Structuration
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Idea that the group communication creates and maintains a group's norms and character of operation.
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3 assumptions of Structuration Theory
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1. Group Members don't have to come to a group w/a clean slate about how to behave
2. Individuals may choose to ignore norms and behavior 3. Group is never finally created |
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Bypassing
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2+ people have different meanings for a word but do not realize it.
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Spin
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Altering word choice to sound more favorable.
Ex: "fired" > "laid off" |
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Guidelines to facilitate coherent, orderly, & clear discussion
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1. Relate your statement to the preceding statement
2. State one point, not give multipoint speech 3. State the point as directly, concretely, and concisely as possible 4. Apply critical thinking skills to questions you ask |
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Guidelines to phrase questions that focus and facilitate group interaction
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1. unless the group has already narrowed a list of alternatives to 2, avoid either-or questions
2. Word questions as concretely as possible 3. Avoid suggesting the answer in the question 4. Apply critical thinking skills to questions you ask |
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Principles of Nonverbal Communication
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1. NV behaviors are ambiguous
2. People cannot stop sending NV behaviors, even when they aren't talking 3. When verbal and NV behaviors clash, most people believe the NV |
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Functions of NV Behaviors
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1. Express how we feel
2. Indicate how to perceive our relationships to other people 3. Supplement words by emphasizing or repeating them 4. Substitute for spoken or written words 5. Regulate the flow of verbal interaction 6. NV behaviors can contradict spoken words |
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Denotation
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Dictionary definition
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Connotation
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Meaning you attach to it
Ex: difference between house, home, residence, dwelling, etc. |
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Personal Connotation
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The result of individual experiences
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Information Question
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Specific info or facts but not interpretations or opinions
Ex; "Why was the meeting cancelled?" |
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Interpretation Question
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Personal opinions, interpretations, or judgments; invite discussion
Ex: "What connection might there be between college grades and whether a student has a computer?" |
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Value Question
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How good, important, significant, or worthwhile something is in the opinion of the responder. A type of interpretation question.
Ex: "Is this question important enough to take up the group's time" |
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Policy Question
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What should be done about an issue. Usually, groups have discussed a number of info and interpretation questions before they begin to discuss policy.
Ex: "What should our school's attendance policy be?" |
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Action Question
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How to implement a decision or policy already discussed by the group.
Ex: "How can we guarantee that all pilots know about this policy and follow it?" |
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Procedure Question
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How the group, or individual, does something.
Ex: "Should we vote or try to come to a consensus?" |
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Relationship Question
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Seek info. about how members feel towards each other, the group, responsibilities, relative status of members, & expectations.
Ex: "How do you all feel about...Do we need some introductions?" |
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Steps to help make abstract remarks more specific
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1. Speak as concretely as possible
2. When using abstract term that might be problematic, give concrete examples of what you mean 3. Use synonyms or descriptive terms or by explaining an operation the term refers to 4. Quantify when possible |
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Appearance
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Category of NV behavior
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Space and Seating
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Category of NV behavior
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Facial Expressions and eye contact
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Category of NV behavior
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Movements
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Category of NV behavior
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Voice
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Category of NV behavior
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Timing
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Category of NV behavior
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Group Ecology
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A groups space as created by seating choices and furniture arrangements
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Using language appropriately to help group progress (4 Rules)
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1. Follow the rules of standard english
2. Adjust to the symbolic nature of language 3. Use emotive words cautiously 4. Organize remarks and the group's discussion process |
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Using language appropriately
Rule 1: Follow the rules of standard english |
1. Use standard sentence structure and vocabulary
2. Use correct grammar 3. Adjust jargon, slang, and profanity |
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Using language appropriately
Rule 2: Adjust to the symbolic nature of language |
1. Guard against bypassing
2. Precise and concrete 3. When using abstract terms, give specific examples of what you mean or use synonyms |
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Using language appropriately
Rule 3: Use emotive words cautiously |
1. Recognize words that are likely to trigger strong emotional responses & substitute for neutral words
2. Never use name-calling |
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Emotive Words
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Trigger strong emotional responses
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Net Conference
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Any meeting where members are electronically connected by network computers.
NV messages like facial expressions or body language may be missing entirely or exaggerated, depending on the type of conference |
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Social Presence
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Extent to which group members perceive the medium (telephone, video conference, computer email) to be like face to face interaction socially and emotionally
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Emoticons
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Typographic symbols used in CMC to convey a variety of emotions as substitutes for NV communication conveyed by facial expressions or gestures in FtF. Help increase social presence of CMC.
Ex: :) for happiness |
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Discussion Question
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The main question or issue the group must answer.
- must be clear and each member should be able to state what it is - Helps the group be able to begin its task in the right way |
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Diversity
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Differences among group members, from personality and learning style difference to differences in opinion.
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How does diversity benefit a group?
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Multiple resources members bring to the group, which can be used not only to understand the problem but to find a good solution.
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Concrete Experience
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- Preference: participating and doing
- Unique, particular experiences rather than theories & generalizations - Trust feelings & are intuitive |
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Reflective Observation
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- Preference: for gaining perspective about one's experience & thinking reflectively about it
- Emphasize understanding rather than practical application - Group "thinkers" |
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Abstract Conceptualization
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- Preference: reading & solitary study
- Emphasize thinking over feeling, logical - "Synthesizers" |
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Active Experimentation
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- Preference: trying different things to see what works
- Effective in crises because they can think & problem solve on their feet |
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Extroversion/Introversion
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- whether energy is directed toward outer, observable word or inner, mental landscape
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Sensing/Intuiting
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- the type of info you naturally tune into
- Sensing: careful & factual, may lose patience with abstract theories - Intuiting: very creative & imaginative, losing patience with detail but interested in the novel |
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Thinking/Feeling
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- how individuals make decisions
- Thinkers: analysis and objective evidence - Feelers: empathy for others & subjective feeling |
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Perceiving/Judging
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- refers to the way people organize the world around them
- Perceivers: spontaneous and flexible - Judgers: planned and orderly |
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Culture
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System of beliefs, values, symbols, and rules that underlie communication patterns within a discernible grouping of people
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Individualistic culture
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Values individual goals more than collective group goals (e.g. United States)
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Collectivistic culture
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Needs of group take precedence over needs of the individual & conformity of the group is valued (e.g. Asian, Native American, Latin American cultures)
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High-power distance
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- Maximizes status differences
- Hierarchical structure & strong authoritarian leadership - (e.g. Mexico) |
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Low-power distance
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- Minimizes status differences
- Sharing power, participatory decision making, & democratic leadership - (e.g. United States) |
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Low-context
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- Words themselves carry most of the meaning
- Direct, unambiguous communication |
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High-context
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- Situation carries most of the meaning
- Indirect communication - NV signals crucial to understanding a message |
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Feminine
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- Overlap of roles
- female/males expected to be modest, nurturing, & other oriented - (e.g. Norway, Sweden) |
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Masculine
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- Gender roles complement each other are reinforced
- Men: assertive - Women: modest |
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African American vs. European American
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- value sharing, emotionality, verbal expression & interactivity, viewed as overly emotional & overreactive
- playful display interpreted as bragging - stand closer to each other, threatening to EA - more direct eye contact when they talk than listen, affect perceptions of trust, interest, acceptance - communication style is narrative, storytelling, interpreted as disorganized, rambling, off-task - more back channel ("uh huh") interpreted as rude |
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Builders
(1901-1945) |
Characteristics:
- major influences: depression and WWI/WWII - cautious about spending money - will work hard at single task until completed - own interests aside for common good Strengths: - careful with resources - plan ahead - reliable - disciplined Weaknesses: - too cautious with resources - lack spontaneity & flexibility |
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Boomers
(1946-1964) |
major influences: TV, Vietnam War, the pill, assassinations, civil rights movement, size of generation
- major consumers - self absorbed - expect to be fulfilled at work - value education Strengths: - confident - put in whatever time task takes - challenge "old ways" - take on big causes Weaknesses - think they are right all the time - expect others to hold similar beliefs - may break rules of ethics |
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Gen-Xers
(1965-1976) |
Characteristics
- major influence: rising divorce rate, Watergate, Pentagon Papers, MTV - distrust institutions - comfortable with diversity - works as mean to an end - value family - comfortable with technology - endure education Strengths - independent thinkers - sensitive to people - tolerant - comfortable with change - highly computer literate Weaknesses - appear pessimistic and negative - unwilling to put personal life aside to complete task - alienated and unmotivated |
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N-Geners
(1977- 1997) |
Characteristics
- major influences: AIDS, technology & internet, death of princess Diana - still young - value diversity - major consumers - nonlinear thinkers - value family Strengths - open-minded and tolerant - completely technology and media savvy - optimistic - innovative - like collaborative work, networking |
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Mindful communication
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Open to multiple perspectives, shows willingness to see the world from another's standpoint, & shifts perspectives if necessary
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Fantasy
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Group discussion not focused on the present task of the group but an apparently unrelated topic
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Symbolic Convergence Theory
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Recognizes that human beings create and share meaning through their talk; basis of group fantasy.
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SYMLOG
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System for the Multiple-Level Observation of Groups
- both a comprehensive theory and a methodology that produces a diagram of relationships among group members |
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Behavioral dimensions classified by SYMLOG
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1. Dominant vs. submissive
2. Friendly vs. unfriendly 3. Task-oriented vs. emotionally expressive |
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Fantasy Chaining
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Group story-telling method wherein everyone in the group adds something to the topic at hand, which may not necessarily be the primary focus.
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Characteristics:
Manifest theme is what the fantasy chain is about at the surface level. Latent theme is the underlying theme (what the group members are really thinking about). Helps the group define itself by creating symbols that are meaningful and that help determine its values. Enables a group to discuss indirectly matters that might be too painful or difficult to bring out into the open. Helps a group deal with emotionally "heavy" information. Effective way in which groups create their shared images of the world, each other, and what they are about as a group. A group's identity converges through these shared fantasies. |
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Brainstorming
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Steps:
1. preview the rules for brainstorming 2. presented with a problem to solve 3. members generate as many solutions as possible, without criticism 4. all suggestions recorded 5. ideas evaluated at another session |
Characteristics
Procedure designed to release a group's creativity in order to generate multiple imaginative solutions to a problem. Separates the idea-creation from the idea-evaluation process by not allowing any criticism to take place while the group is generating ideas. May be more productive for each member to brainstorm quietly and then share ideas with the group (brainwriting). Electronic brainstorming puts each member at a computer terminal and their ideas are projected to a screen so no one knows from whom an idea came. Used by businesses and government to improve the quality of decision making. |
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Synectics
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Problem solving method that stimulates thought processes of which the subject may be unaware. Designed to stimulate creative thinking by using metaphors & looking for similarities in different things.
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Asking the group to consider the following questions help trigger insights:
1. change your perspective 2. look for a direct comparison, something from another field that is similar to your problem 3. temporarily suspend reality to use fantasy and imagination |
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Mind Mapping
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Technique encouraging radiant thinking produced by free association.
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Characteristics:
- presenting ideas in a radial, graphical, non-linear manner, encourage a brainstorming approach to planning and organizational tasks. - the visual basis of them helps one to distinguish words or ideas, often with colors and symbols. - generally take a hierarchical or tree branch format, with ideas branching into their subsections. - because the branches are more like a web than a line, members often see connections they might otherwise miss. |
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Critical Thinking
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Using information that is supported by evidence & reasoning & logic to promote soundness.
- Occurs when a problem is analyzed thoroughly, using as much relevant info as possible. - Both necessary & time consuming |
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Principles differentiating critical from creative thinking
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1. Evidence: facts, data, opinions, and other info that back a claim or conclusion
2. Arguments: claims supported by evidence and reasoning |
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Open-Minded
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Willing to consider new information and ideas, even if they contradict previous beliefs.
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Probing Questions
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Designed to help critical thinking by examining info & reasoning in more depth. Significant way members can test the adequacy & quality of info, reasoning, & sources.
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Examples:
What evidence do you have to suggest that the statement is true? Where did that evidence come from? Does anyone have any evidence to contradict the statement we just heard? If we make that decision, what will it lead to? What might the consequences be if we are wrong? How much danger is there that we have reached the wrong conclusion? How did you arrive at that conclusion? |
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Gathering info in the critical thinking process: assessing information
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1. take stock of existing information
2. ID holes & weaknesses 3. make a master list of what info is needed & where it can be found 4. collect needed resources by assigning members specific responsibilities for items in the master list 5. use all appropriate info. gathering skills: Direct observation, reading, interviews (individual or group), other sources (radio, TV, casual conversation) |
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Evaluating info in the critical thinking process: determining what someone means
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1. ask yourself what conclusion the author is drawing
2. determine main arguments the author provides to support the conclusion |
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Evaluating info in the critical thinking process: distinguishing fact from opinion & inference
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Facts: something that can be verified by observation & is not arguable
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Opinions: inferences that go beyond facts & contain some degree of probability
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Evaluating info in the critical thinking process: clarifying ambiguous terms
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What are the ambiguous terms?
What do you think the author means be each term? If you can't decide with confidence, what problems does this create? |
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Evaluating info in the critical thinking process: assessing source's credibility
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Who is the author? What are his credentials?
Is this a recognized expert? Is this a biased source or one with something to gain by expressing this opinion? Is this information consistent with other credible sources? |
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Evaluating info in the critical thinking process: assessing information accuracy & worth
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What type of evidence is being offered in support of the author's arguments?
Is the evidence supported by other experts? Is the info based on scientific method? If the info is based on interviews, was the sample large enough and representative enough? Were the questions clear and not biased or loaded? |
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Errors of reasoning (5)
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1. overgeneralizing
2. attacking a person instead of the argument 3. confusing casual relationships 4. either-or-thinking 5. incomplete comparisons |
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Overgeneralizing
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a conclusion not supported by enough data.
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Example: "all college students are irresponsible borrowers"
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Attacking a person instead of an argument (ad hominem)
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a form of name calling used to direct attention away from someone's evidence or logic (or lack thereof)
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Example: "because so and so is a ___ (women, catholic, foreigner, etc.) you can't believe his/her opinion about the topic."
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Confusing Casual Relationships
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when speaker or writer mistakenly states what caused an event.
1) oversimplify by implying or stating that only one cause exists for an event 2) because two events are related by subject matter, one causes the other. |
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Either-or Thinking
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asking members to choose between two options as if no other choices existed
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Example: "if parents won't teach their children about sex, the schools have to"
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Incomplete Comparisons
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Analogies: comparisons that help clarify ideas & issues
Incomplete analogy asks us to stretch a similarity too far. Because one thing bears a resemblance to another does not mean they are identical. |
Example: "Bob is older than the class"
While bob does have an age, the class does not. |
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Symptoms of Groupthink
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Occur in highly cohesive groups because of the pressure to achieve consensus. More likely to occur in: groups with a long history, groups strongly embedded in their organizations, and groups that insulate themselves from their outside environments
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Important symptoms to help spot groupthink:
1. the group overestimates its power and morality 2. the group becomes close minded 3. group members experience pressure to conform |
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Steps to Prevent Groupthink
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1. Encourage members to "kick the problem around" before they start focusing on a solution
2. Establish a norm of critical evaluation 3. Prevent leaders from stating their preferences at the beginning of a group's decision making session 4. Prevent insulation of the group |
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Devil's Advocate
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a group member who formally is expected to challenge ideas to foster critical thinking. Help spot potential flaws in a plan or holes in arguments.
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Confirmation Bias
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Tendency to believe things that support your argument. Group members feel pressure to conform, so don't express own opinion.
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Conflict
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Occurs when discordant ideas or feelings are expressed or experienced between two interdependent people. Emphasizes central role of communication: can be experienced without being expressed, group members can be uncomfortable without saying a word.
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Myths about conflict and the reality
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Myth 1: harmful and should be avoided
Reality: help members understand an issue more clearly, can improve group decisions, increase member involvement, increase cohesiveness. Myth 2: represents a misunderstanding or breakdown in communication. Reality: some occur over differences in values, goals, methods of achieving goals, & limited resources. Myth 3: can be resolved if parties are willing to discuss the issues. Reality: conflicts over basic values & goals may not be resolvable. Conflicts over limited resources and methods of achieving may be resolvable through communication if the basic values & goals of the parties are compatible. |
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Substantive Conflict
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Resulting from disagreements over ideas, information, reasoning, or evidence. Work related and is basis for effective decision making and problem solving.
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Affective Conflict
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Resulting from personality clashes, likes, dislikes, and competition for power. Represents the "who" in the conflict and is detrimental to the efficient functioning of any group.
Rooted in one member acting superior and another members refusal to accept difference in status power and inequity. |
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Procedural Conflict
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Type of substantive conflict resulting from disagreement about how to do something. Withdraw by forcing a vote or otherwise regulating the group's work.
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Avoidance
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a person's unwillingness to confront or engage in conflict.
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Example: behaviors that ignore or refuse to engage in conflict
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Accommodation
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a person's willingness to engage in conflict, however, backs away by giving in to appease the other party.
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Competition
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Preference for coming out ahead in the conflict at the expense of the other party. (win-lose)
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Collaboration
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Preference for working with the other to find a solution that please both parties. (win-win)
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Compromise
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Preference for giving a little and gaining a little to manage the issue.
Can work only if all parties feel solution is fair, and that no one has won. (partial-win/partial-lose solution) |
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Steps to expressing disagreement ethically
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1. express your disagreement
2. express in a timely way 3. express with sensitivity toward others 4. react with spirit of inquiry, not defensiveness |
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Steps to maximize influence when expressing disagreement
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1. arguments are of high quality
2. arguments are consistent 3. make sure all members of subgroup publicly agree with each other |
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Nominal grouping technique
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Alternates between individual work and group work to help a group hear from every member when discussing a controversial issue. Help members reach decision without bitterness from win-lose conflict.
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1. problem is stated clearly and concisely; features of problem are listed
2. participants work silently to create individual lists of possible solutions 3. each solution is recorded on a chart in round-robin fashion 4. members clarify items if necessary 5. each person places a sticker by top ranked items 6. average ratings are compiled 7. group discusses top-ranked items 8. group revotes if necessary 9. group reaches a decision |
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Principled negotiation
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one way of dealing with conflict that promotes finding ways to meet the needs of conflicting parties and respecting their relationship.
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Steps:
1. Separate the people from the problem - emphasize importance of recognizing feelings 2. Focus on interest, not positions - distinguish between irreconcilable positions & the interest behind each 3. Invent new options for mutual gain - brainstorm creative options 4. Insist on using objective criteria - explore whether any objective criteria might apply to couples dilemma |
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Leadership vs Leader
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Leadership: the use of communication to modify attitudes & behaviors of members to meet groups goals & needs.
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Leader: any person in the group who uses interpersonal influence to help the group achieve its goals.
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Designated vs. Emergent
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Designated leader: an appointed or elected leader whose title identifies him/her as leader.
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Emergent leader: a person who starts out with the same status as other members but gradually emerges as an informal leader in the eyes of other members.
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Legitimate power
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based on title or position
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Reward power
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ability to give members what they want & need
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Punishment power
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ability to take away what members want & need
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Expert power
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perceived knowledge or skill
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Referent power
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ability to be liked & admired
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Information power
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ability to control information
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Ecological power
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ability to manipulate the logistics of the task as well as the physical environment of the group
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Myths of leadership
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1. personality trait that individuals possess in varying degrees
2. there is an ideal leadership stye, no matter the situation 3. leaders get other people to do the work for them |
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Performing administrative duties: planning for meetings
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1. define purpose of the meeting and communicate it clearly to the members
2. make sure members know the place & time 3. advise & prepare special resource people 4. make physical arrangements |
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Performing administrative duties: following up on meetings
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1. keep track of member assignments
2. serve as liaison with other groups |
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Performing administrative duties:
managing the groups written communication |
1. send meeting notice & agenda
2. keep personal notes to stay on track 3. keep minutes of each meeting 4. keep permanent file copies of any reports, resolutions or recommendations |
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Leading group discussions
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1. initiating
2. structuring 3. equalizing opportunity to participate 4. stimulate creative thinking 5. stimulate critical thinking 6. foster meeting-to-meeting improvements |
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Developing the group: establishing a climate of trust
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i. establish norms
ii. function as a coordinator iii. encourage members to get to know each other |
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Developing the group: teamwork and cooperation
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i. speak of us & we
ii. develop name/symbol iii. watch for hidden agenda items iv. use conflict management approaches and procedures v. share rewards vi. have fun |
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Distributed leadership and what it means to encourage it
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acknowledges that each group member should perform the communication behaviors needed to move the group toward its goal.
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1. be perceptive & analyze needs of group
2. adapt your behavior to fit needs of the group 3. focus primarily on task need rather than social relationships 4. express yourself clearly and concisely 5. be knowledgeable about group processes & techniques |
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Ethical Guidelines
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1. do not lie or send deceptive/harmful messages
2. place concern for group ahead of own personal gain 3. be respectful & sensitive 4. stand behind other members when enforcing approved policies & actions 5. treat members with equal respect 6. establish clear polices all members are expected to follow 7. follow the group rules, just as you expect others to do |
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Current ideas about leadership: functional concept
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groups need to have certain functions performed & all group members can & should perform needed functions.
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Current ideas about leadership: contingency concept
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appropriate leadership behavior depends on the situation.
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