Set the Language

We weren't able to detect the audio language on your flashcards. Please select the correct language below.

Front

Back

Hint

Related Flashcards

Flashcards
»
GRE Psychology Set 1

Gre Psychology Set 1

by Ana-Ortiz, Apr. 2015

Subjects: Personality, Metrics, Clinical Psychology, Social, Developmental, and some General

Favorite

Add to folder

Flag

Shuffle
Toggle On

Toggle Off
Alphabetize
Toggle On

Toggle Off
Front First
Toggle On

Toggle Off
Both Sides
Toggle On

Toggle Off
Read
Toggle On

Toggle Off

Reading...

Front

Card Range To Study

through

Play button

Progress

1/382

Click to flip

Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;

Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;

H to show hint;

A reads text to speech;

382 Cards in this Set

Front
Back
3rd side (hint)

Norman Triplett	investigated the effect of competition on performance; found that people perform better on familiar tasks when in the presence of others than when along
William McDougall	published the first textbooks on social psychology
E.H. Ross	published the first textbooks on social psychology
Verplank	showed that the course of a conversation changes dramatically upon the feeback (approval) of from others; helped establish the reinforcement theory as an important perspective in stuyding social behavior
reinforcement theory	behavior is motivated by anticipated rewards
Albert Bandura	main figure in social learning theory; proposed that behavior is learned through imitatio
role theory	the perspective that people are aware of the social roles they are expected to fill, and much of their observable behavior can be attributed to adopting those roles
cognitive theory	involves pereption, judgement, memories, and decision making
attitudes	include cognition or beliefs, feelings, and behavioral predisposition; are typically expressed in opinion statements; are likes and dislikes, affinties for and aversion to things, people, ideas, etc.
consistency theories	people prefer consistency, and will change or resist changing attitudes based upon this preference
Fritz Heider's balance theory	concered with the way three elements are related: the person whom we are talking to (P), some other person (O), and a thing, idea, or some other person (X). Balance exists when all three fit together harmoniously. When there isn't balance, there will be stress, and a tendency to remove this stress by achieving balance. Imbalance occurs when somone agrees with someon he or she dislikes, or disagrees ith someone he or she lies.
Leon Festinger's cognitive dissonance theory	Cognitive dissoance is the conflic that u feel when your attitudes are not in synch with your behaviors. Engaging in behaviors that conflicts with an attitude may result in changing one's attitude so that it is consistent with the behavior.
free–choice dissonant	occurs in a situation where a person makes a choice between several desirable alternatives.
post–decisional dissonance	dissonance that emerges after a choice has been made
spreading of alternatives	the relative worth of the two alternatives is spread apart
forced–compliance dissonance	occurs when an individual is forced into having a manner that is inconsistent with his or her beliefs or attitudes; the force may come from either anticipated punishment or reward
minimal justification effect	When behavior can be justified by means of external inducements, there is no need to change internal cognition. However, when the external justification is minimal, you will reduce your dissonance by changing internal cognitions; this is sometimes called insufficient justification effec.t
Daryl Bem's self–perception theory	When your attitudes about something are weak or ambiguous, you observe your own behavior and attribute an attitude to yourself based on your behavior. People infer what their attitudes are based upon observation of their own behavior. A person's initial attitude is irrelevant and there is no discomfort produced by behavior.
overjustification effect	If you reward people for something they already like doing, they may stop liking it.
Carl Hovland's model	deals with attitude change as a process of communicating a message with the intent to persuade someone
Carl Hovland's model: three components of communication of persuasion	1) the communicator––the source; someone who has taken a position on an issue and is trying to persuade someone to adopt his or her position; produces communication 2) the communication––presentation of argument 3) the situation––the surroundings in which the communication takes place
sleeper effect	The persuasive impact of the high credibility decreases over time, while the persuasive impact of the low credibility source increases over time.
two–sided messages	contain arguments for and against a position
Petty and Cacioppo's elaboration likelihood model of persuasion	There are two routes to persuasion: the central route and the peripheral route. If the issue is very important to us, we're dealing with the central route to persuasion. If the issue is not very important to us or if we cannot clearly hear the message, we're dealing with the peripheral route to persuasion.
cultural trisms	beliefs that are seldom questioned
William McGuire	The inoculation process against diseases in the body is analogous to the mind––people can be inoculated against the attack of persuasive communications.
belief perseverance	People will hold beliefs even after they have been shown to be false. reactance	When social pressure to behave in a particular way becomes so blatant that the person's sense of freedom is threatened, the person will tend to act in a way to reassert a sense of freedom. Leon Festinger's social comparison theory
Stanly Schatcher	found that greater anxiety does lead to greater desire to affiliate; a situation that provokes little anxiety typically does not lead to a desire to affiliate.
reciprocity hypothesis	We tend to like people who indicate that they like us. We tend to dislike people who dislike us.
Arnoson and Linder	gain–loss principle
gain–loss principle	An evaluation that changes will have more of an impact than an evaluation that remains constant. Thus, we will like someone more if their liking for us has increased (showing a gain) than someone who has consistently liked us. Similarity, we will generally dislike someone more whose liking for us has decreased (shown a loss) than someone who has consistently disliked us.
Two main principles of cognitive dissonance theory	1) if a person is pressured to say or do something, there will be a tendency for him or her to change those attitudes. 2)the greater the pressure to comply, the less this attitude change. Ultimately, attitude change generally occurs when the behavior is induced with minimum pressure.
Refuted counterarguments	inoculation against attacks on cultural truisms by first presenting arguments against the truism and then refuting the arguments
social exchange theory	assumes that a person weighs the rewards and costs of interacting with another; the more the rewards outweigh the costs, the greater the attraction to the other person
equity theory	we consider not only our own costs and rewards, but the costs and rewards of the other person; we prefer that our ratio of costs to rewards be equal to the other person's ratio
need complementarity	people choose relationships so that they mutually satisfy each other's needs; the person who likes to talk is complemented by the person who likes to listen
attractiveness stereotype	the tendency to attribute positive qualities and desirable characteristics to attactive people
mere exposure hypothesis	mere repeated exposure to a stimulus leads to enhanced liking for it; the more you see something, the more you like it
Robert Zajonc	key figure in mere exposure research; how social facilitation (how the presence of others increases or decreases performance) works in humans and other animals – also math model of birth order importance for IQ
altruism	a form of helping behavior in which the person's intent is to benefit someone else at some cost (or no benefit) to himself or herself
helping behavior	includes altruistic motivations and behaviors that may be motivated by egoism or selfishness
John Darley and Bibb Latané	research on bystander intervention
pluralistic ignorance	situation in which a majority of group members privately reject a norm, but incorrectly assume that most others accept it, and therefore go along with it; leads others to a definition of an event as a nonemergency
empathy	the ablity to vicariously experience the emotions of another; thought to be a strong influence on helping behavior
Batson's empathy–altruism model	when faced with situations in which others may need help, people might feel distress (mental pain or anguish) and/or they might feel empathy; both these states are important, since either can determine helping behavior (thus explain “alturims” behavior)
frustration–aggression	when people are frustrated, they act aggressively; the strength of the frustration experienced is correlated with the level of aggression observed
Bandura's social learning theory	aggression is learned through modeling or through reinforcement; aggressive behavior is selectively reinforced––people act aggressively because they expect some sort of reward for doing so
modeling	direct observation autokinetic effect	if you stare at a point of light in a room that is otherwise completely dark, the light will appear to move
Muzafer Sherif	used the autokinetic effect to study conformity (how people are influenced by others and how they’ll conform to group); found that individuals conformed to the group as they were more willing to compromise on their estimate of how much they saw light move; their judgments converged on some group norm (if before indiv. Rated 6 inches, in group rated closer to group avg., say 4”) -- also studied cooperation / intergroup conflict with Robber’s Cave experiment
conformity	yielding to group pressure when no explicit demand has been made to do so
Asch	Conformity – perceptual experiment compared length of lines; subjects yielded to group pressure and chose incorrect line as
Milgram	experimenter told subjects to give electric shock to other person; subjects shocked person; majority continued shocking up to maximum voltage (shows obedience, esp from authority figures)
foot–in–the–door effect	compliance with a small request increases the likelihood of compliance with a larger request
door–in–the–face effect	people who refuse a large initial request are more likely to agree to a later small request
Clark, K and Clark, M	performed study on doll preferences in African American children; the majority of the white and black children preferred the white doll ude to the negative effects of racism and minority group status on the self–concept of black children; the results were used in the 1954 Brown v the Topeka Board of Education Supreme Court case
social perception	the ways in which we form impressions about the characteristics of individuals and of groups of people
primary effect	refers to those occasions when first impressions are more important than subsequent impressions
recency effect	the most recent information we have about an individual is most important in forming our impressions
attribution theory	the tendency for individuals to infer the causes of other people's behavior
Fritz Heider	one of the founding fathers of attributed theory; says that we are all naive amateur psychologists who attempt to discover causes and effects in events: dispositional causes and situational causes
dispositional attribution	related to the features of a person whose behavior is being considered
situational attribution	external and those that related to features of the surroundings
fundamental attribution error	when inferring the causes of others' behaviors, there is a general bias towards making dispositional attributions rather than situational attributions
halo effect	the tendency to allow a general impression about a person (I like Jill in general) to influence other, more specific evaluations about a person (Jill is good writer, Jill is trusthworthy, Jill can do no wrong); explains why people are often inaccurate in evaluation of people that they either believe to be generally good, or those that they believe to be generally bad
M.J. Lerner	studied the tendency of individuals to believe in a just world – people justify bad things happening to people by attributing it to them as a person (they are bad so they had it coming)—like fundamental attribution theory, they overestimate dispositional and underestimate situational details
just world bias	good things would happen to good people, and bad things would happen to bad people
Theodore Newcomb	studied political norms. looked at the influence of the college experience on social and political beliefs. persons who like each other will with increased contact gradually come to agree more on topics of mutual relevance.
Edward Hall	studied norms for interpersonal distance in interpersonal interactions
proxemics	the study of how individuals space themselves in relation to others
Zajonc	studied the mere exposure effect; resolved problems with the social facilitation effect by suggesting that the presence of others enhances the emission of dominant response and impairs the emission of non-dominant responses
social loafing	a group phenomenon referring to the tendency for people tp ut forth less effort
Philip Zimbardo	found that people are more likely to commit acts when they feel anonymous within a social environment; performed prison simulation and used the concept of deindividuation to explain results
deindividuation	a loss of self–awareness and of personal identity
Irving Janis	developed the concept of groupthink to explain how group decisions can sometimes go awry
groupthink	the tendency of decision making groups to strive for consensus by not considering discordant information
risky shift	the finding that group decisions are riskier than the average of the individual choices (and this average riskiness of the individual choices can be considered to be an estimate of the group's original riskiness)
value hypothesis	the risky shift occurs in situations in which riskiness is culturally valued
group polarization	a tendency for group discussion to enhance the group's initial tendencies towards riskiness or caution
leadership	leaders of groups engage in more communication than non-leader; research shows that by artificially increasing the amount a person speaks, that person's perceived leadership status also increases.
Kurt Lewin	divided leadership styles into 3 categories: autocratic, democratic, and laissez–faire
laissez–faire group of leaders	less efficient, less organized, and less satisfying than the democratic group
autocratic group	more hostile, more aggressive, and more dependent on their leader; greatest quantity of work
democratic groups	more satisfying and more cohesive than autocratic groups; had greatest work motivation and interest
cooperation	persons acts together for their mutual benefit so that all of them can obtain a goal
competition	a person acts for his or her individual benefit so that he or she can obtain a goal that has limited availability
prisoner's dilemma	A given person gains most if he or she chooses to cooperate, and the other competes. Together, they lose the most if both compete. a given individual loses the most if he or she competes and the other cooperates.
superordinate goals	goals best obtained through intergroup cooperation
Abraham Maslow	– created the hierarchy of needs
Alice Eagly	– found an interaction between gender and social status with regard to how easily an individual might be influenced or swayed
Authoritarianism	– is the disposition to view the world as full of power relationships – authoritarian individuals are highly domineering (if they are the top dog of the situation) or highly submissive (if they are in the presence of a more powerful figure). – these individuals are also likely conventional, agressive, steretyping, and anti–introspective – this is measured by the F–SCALE (also known as the Fascism scale)
Barnum effect	– the tendency to agree with and accept personality interpretations that are provided
Big Five	– super factors, or five dimensions that seem to encompass all of personality – O (openness to experience, intellectual curiosity) – C (conscientiousness) – E (extroversion, enthusiasm) – A (agreeableness) – N (neuroticism, nervousness)
Costa and McCrae	– found that personality changes very little after 30
Dispositional attribution	– the tendency for others to think that actions are caused more by a person's personality than by the situation. This would mean that a person lies because she is a liar, not because of the pull of the situation – also FUNDAMENTAL ATTRIBUTION ERROR
Dispositionists	– people who emphasized internal determinants of behavior in personality theory
Eleanor Maccoby and Carol Jacklin	– scrutinized studies of sex differences and found that relatively few existed that could not be explained away by social learning – the most consistent difference that seems independent of social influence is that females have greater verbal ability and males have greater visual/spatial ability. This has been attributed to internal biological or hormonal differences but is still hotly debated.
George Kelley	– suggested that PERSONAL CONSTRUCTS (conscious ideas about the self, others, and situations) determine personality and behavior
Gordon Allport Intro	– emphasized an IDEOGRAPHIC approach to personality theory – this approach attempts to capture an individual's unique, defining characteristics, as opposed to a NOMTHETIC, which uses large numbers of people to study the commonalities of personality approach – Allport was concerned only with conscious motives governed by the PROPRIUM or PROPRIATE FUNCTION (his version of ego), and he believed that the proprium acted somewhat consistently based on traits it had developed through experience – Allport and his students worked to identify all of the possible traits that could go with personality
Gordon Allport's Ideographic Approach to Personality	– Traits are the relatively stable characteristics of behavior that a persona exhibits, such as introversion, stinginess, etc. – Using a LEXICAL approach (meaning picking all of the possible traits out of the dictionary) Allport gathered about 5,000 traits. – Next, Allport hypothesized that people act differently in different situations because they have a trait hierarchy: at the top a CARDINAL trait, then CENTRAL traits, the SECONDARY traits. So, while circumstances may cause a person to show conflicting secondary traits, he will always be consistent with his cardinal trait (In trait theory be sure to understand the difference between TRAITS and STATES. Traits are relatively enduring characteristics. States are temporary feelings or characteristics).
Grant Dahlstrom	– linked type A personality to heart disease and other health problems
Hans Eysenck	– used factor analysis to identify the underlying traits of the two personality–type dimensions – introversion–extraversion and the stable–unstable (neuroticism). These two dimensions formed a cross and, therefore, four quadrants: phlegmatic, melancholic, choleric, and sanguine
Henry Murray	– developed the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) – consists of ambiguous story cards. Murray asserted that people would project their own "needs" onto these cards, such as the need for achievement.
Implicit Theories about Personality	– people often make assumptions about the dispositions of an individual based on the actions of that person
Interactionists	– assert a combination of stable, internal factors and situations in explaining behavior/personality
Julian Rotter	– developed: 1) external locus of control – a personality characteristic that causes one to view events as the result of luck or fate 2) internal locus of control – causes a person to view events as the outcomes of his own actions. Too much of this can breed self–blame
Kay Deaux	– found that women's successes at stereotypical "male" tasks are often attributed to luck, while men's successes are often attributed to skill. This suggests that gender is a social construct that colors interpretations – Also, studies have found that women themselves attribute their successes to luck more than men, indicating that women have lower self–esteem
Learned helplessness	– the brainchild of MARTIN SELIGMAN, demonstrates how experience can change people's personalities – after a series of events in which one may feel helpless or out of control, a negative or pessimistic explanatory style develops. The person basically gives up in general and exhibits a helpless disposition. – this can be countered with cognitive training that fosters LEARNED OPTIMISM for the person
Matina Horner	– suggested that females shunned masculine–type successes not because of fear of failure or lack of interest, but because they feared success and its negative repercussions, such as resentment and rejection
Meyer Friedman and Ray Rosenman	– studied TYPE A PERSONALITY – is characterized by drive, competitiveness, aggressiveness, and tension and is most commonly found in middle–to upper–class men.
Multiplicative observation	– is the method of discerning personality from a variety of observations and situations
Nancy Cantor and Walter Mischel	– proposed the COGNITIVE PROTOTYPE APPROACH to personality theory, in which cognitive behavior (such as the formulation of and attention to prototypes), is examined in social situations. – In short, Mischel thought that consistency of behavior is the result of cognitive processes, rather than the result of personality traits per se
Personality tests	– two fo the best known are the Minnesote Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) and the California Personality Inventory (CPI)
Raymond Cattell	– used factor analysis in data reduction of Allport's 5,000 traits. – identified 16 BIPOLAR SOURCE TRAITS, such as relaxed–tense, that seemed to underlie all of the 5,000 (often overlapping) traits. These were Cattell's SIXTEEN PERSONALITY FACTORS tested in his sixteen personality questionnaire.
Sandra Bem	– studied androgyny (possessing both male and female qualities) and created the BEM SEX ROLE INVENTORY – androgenous individuals have been found to have higher self–esteem, lower anxiety, and more adaptability than their highly masculine or feminine counterparts
Self–awareness vs. Self–consiousness	– self–awareness is a STATE – it is the temporary condition of being aware of how you are thinking, feeling or doing – self–consiousness is a TRAIT – it refers to how often one generally becomes self–aware
Self–esteem	– is knowing that you are worthwhile and bieng in touch with your actual strengths – about 50 percent of people perceive themselves accurately and about 35 percent perceive themselves narcissistically
Self–handicapping	– self–defeating behavior that allows one to dismiss or excuse failure
Self–monitoring	– characterized by scrutiny of one's own behavior, motivation to act appropriately rather than honestly, and ability to mask true feelings
Seymour Epstein	– was critical of personality trait theory
Seymour Epstein and Walter Mischel	– have asserted that trait and type theories have always had a big problem: both theories assume that a person's behavior is stable across situations and that people fail to take circumstances into account. Studies (and real life) show that people often act differently in different situations.
Situationists	– people who emphasize circumstances in determining behavior/personality
Stimulus–seeking	– these individuals have a great need for arousal
Twin studies and personality	– have indicated that the heritability of personality is about 40–50 percent – Most notably the "Jim" twins had wives with the same name, dogs with the same name, and the same habits.
Type Theory	– Originally dominated personality theory. – People were placed into personality–type categories, often based on physical appearance. – William Sheldon Alfred Adler
William Sheldon	– Type theory of personality – Devised a system based on SOMATOTYPES (body types) – Sheldon isolated three physiques and the corresponding personality types: 1) ENDOMORPH – short, plum body = pleasure seeking, social behavior 2) MESOMORPH – muscular, athletic body – energetic, aggressive behavior 3) Ectomorph – skinny, fragile body = inhibited, intellectual behavior
Achievement Tests	– Measure how well you know a particular subject. They measure past learning.
Alfred Binet	– Developed both the concept of the IQ and the first intelligence test (Binet scale). – IQ is still most commonly computed by Binet's equation: (mental age/chronological age) x 100. Mental age is the age level of a person's functioning according to the IQ test. The highest chronological age used in the computation is 16. After that, intelligence seems to stop developing; therefore, to use adult ages would unnecessarily decrease the IQ ratio.
Anne Anastasi	– Researched intelligence in relation to performance, thought it could change with experience and cultural influences created need for different metrics. Also differentiated aptitude vs achievement tests.
Aptitute Tests	– Supposedly measures your innate ability to learn (but this is constantly debated). These tests are intended to predict later performance.
Bayley Scales of Infant Development	– Not intelligence tests. – They measure the sensory and motor development of infants in order to identify mentally retarded children. The Bayley scales are poor predictors of later intelligence.
Beck Depression Inventory (BDI)	– Is not used to diagnose depression. Rather, it is widely used to assess the severity of depression that has already been diagnosed. The BDI allows a therapist or researcher to follow the course of a person's depression.
California Personality Inventory (CPI)	– Is a personality measure generally used for more "normal" and less clinical groups than the MMPI. – It was developed by Harrison Gough at University of California, Berkeley.
Draw–A–Person Test	– Asks the subject to draw a person of each sex and to tell a story about them.
Empirical–Keying or Criterion–Keying Approach	– to constructing assessment instruments involves the selection of items that can discriminate between various groups. – An individuals' responses to the items determine if he is like a particular group or not. – The STRONG–CAMPBELL INTEREST INVENTORY is an example of this.
F–Scale or F–Ratio	– Is a measurement of fascism or authoritarian personality
Good enough Draw–A–Man Test	– For children is notable for its (relatively) cross–cultural application and simple directions: "Make a picture of a man. Make the very best picture that you can." Children are scored based on detail and accuracy, not artistic talent.
IQ Correlates...	– Correlates most positively with IQ of biological parents (not adoptive parents) and socioeconomic status of parents (measured by either income or job–type).
John Horn and Raymond Cattell	– Found that FLUID INTELLIGENCE (knowing how to do something) declines with old age while CRYSTALLIZED INTELLIGENCE (known a fact) does not
Julian Rotter	– Created the Internal–External Locus of Control Scale to determine whether a person feels responsible for the things that happen (internal) or that he has no control over the events in life (external).
Mean IQ of Americans	– Is 100, with a standard deviation of 15 or 16, depending on the test
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)	– Was originally created to determine mental illness, but is now used as a personality measure. – The MMPI consists of 550 "true/false/not sure" questions. Most notably, the MMPI contains items (such as "I would like to ride a horse") that have been found to discriminate between different disorders and that subjects could not "second guess." The test has high validity primarily because it was constructed with highly discriminatory items and because it has three VALIDITY SCALES (questions that assess lying, carelessness, and faking).
Objective Tests	– Do not allow subjects to make up their own answers, so these tests are relatively structured.
Projective Tests	– Allow the subject to create his own answer, thus facilitating the expression of conflicts, needs, and impulses. – The content of the response is interpreted by the test administrator. – Some projective tests are scored more objectively than others.
Q–sort or Q–measure Technique	– Is the process of sorting cards into a normal distribution. Each card has a different statement on it pertaining to personality. The subject places the cards that he is neutral about at the hump of the curve. Toward one end, he places cards that he deems "very characteristic" of himself, and toward the other end, he places the "not characteristic" cards.
Robert Zajonc	– Studied the relationship between birth order and intelligence. – He found that firstborns were slightly more intelligent than second borns and so on. He also found that the more children present in a family, the less intelligent they were likely to be. This relationship seems to also be affected by the spacing of the children, with greater spaces between children leading to higher intelligence.
Rorschach Inkblot Test	– Requires that the subject describe what he sees in each of ten inkblogs. – Scoring is complex. – The validity of the test is questionable, but its fame is not.
Rosenzweig Picture–Frustration (P–F) Study	– Consists of cartoons in which one person is frustrating another person. – The subject is asked to describe how the frustrated person responds.
Rotter Incomplete Sentence Blank	– Is similar to word association. Subjects finish incomplete sentences.
Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scale	– Is the revised version of Alfred Binet's original intelligence test. – LEWIS TERMAN of Stanford University was the first to revise it, hence the name. – The Stanford–Binet is used with children and is organized by age level. OF all the intelligence tests, the Stanford–Binet is the best known predictor of future academic achievement. – Terman is also famous for his studies with gifted children and for the finding that children with higher IQs are better adjusted.
Structured Tests	– Are often seen as more objectively scored than PROJECTIVE TESTS. Most objective tests are self–reported – in other words, the subject records her own responses. However, these tests are not completely objective, because any self–report measure allows for the subject to bias her answers.
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)	– Is made up of 31 cards (1 blank and 30 with pictures). The pictures show various interpersonal scenes (two people facing each other). – The subject tells a story about each of the cards, which reveals aspects of her personality. – The TAT is often used to measure need for achievement. NEEDS, PRESS, and PERSONOLOGY are terms that go along with interpreting the test.
Vocational Tests	– Assess to what extent an individual's interests and strengths match those already found by professionals in a particular job field.
Walter Mischel	– Was extremely critical of personality trait–theory and of personality tests in general. He felt that situations (not traits) decide actions.
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)	– Is the most commonly used intelligence test for adults. – Like all of the Wechsler intelligence tests, it is organized by subtests that provide subscales and identify problem areas. – The version in current use is called the WAIS–III (third edition)
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC–R)	– Is for children aged six to sixteen.
Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI)	– Is for children aged four to six.
Word Association Test	– Was originally used in conjunction with free–association techniques. – A word is called out by a psychologist, and the subject says the next word that comes to mind.
Thanatos	– the death instinct in Freud's psychoanalytic theory
Eros	– the life instinct in psychanalytic theory – includes sex and love
Psychoanalytic abnormal theory	– pathological behavior, dreams, and unconsious behavior are all symptoms of underlying, unresolved conflict, which are manifested when the ego does not find acceptable ways to express conflict – this is called PSYCHIC DETERMINISM
Psychanalytic Therapy	– a patient is usually seen four to five times per week and often for many years
Free association	– the central process in which a patient reports throughts without censure or guidance – because unconscious material is always looking for a way out, the patient can uncover and express repressed material through free association – this discharge is called CATHARSIS or ABREACTION
Transference	– when patients react to the therapist much like they react to their parents – the therapist–patient relationship then serves as a metaphor for the patients' repressed emotions about their parents and, thus, as a way of examining those unconsious feelings
Countertransference	– refers to how a therapist feels about his or her patient
Goal of psychoanalytic therapy	– aims to lessen the unconsious pressures on the individual by making as much fo this material conscious as possible – this will allow the ego to be a better mediator of forces
Aggression	– a central force in humans that must find a socially acceptable outlet
Repression–denial	– a defence mechanism – not allowing threatening material into awareness
Rationalization	– a defence mechanism – justifying or rationalizing behavior or feelings that cause guilt
Projection	– accusing others of having one's own unacceptable feelings
Displacement	– shifting unacceptable feelings or actions to a less threatening recipient
Reaction formation	– Embracing feelings or behaviors opposite to the true threatening feelings that one has
Compensation	– Excelling in one area to make up for shortcomings in another
Sublimation	– Chaneling threatening drives into acceptable outlets (i.e. art)
Undoing	– Performing an often ritualistic activity in order to relieve anxiety about unconscious drives
Identification	– Imitating a central figure in one's life, such as a parent
Dreams	– have MANIFEST CONTENT and LATENT CONTENT – a safe outlet for unconsious material and wish fulfillment
Pleasure Principle	– Also known as PRIMARY PROCESS – the human motivation to seek pleasure and avoid pain
Reality Principle	– Also known as SECONDARY PROCESS – is guided by the ego and responds to the demands of the environment by delaying gratification
Screen memory	– Memories that serve as representatives of important childhood experiences
Individual theory	– Alfred Adler – people are viewed as creative, social, and whoel, as opposed to Freud's more negative and structural approach – Adler described people in the process of realizing themselves or of "becoming" – During this journey, the individual is motived by SOCIAL NEEDS and feelings of INFERIORITY – a healthy individual will pursue goals in spite of feelings of inferiority – a healthy individual has a WILL TO POWER and pursues goals that are beneficial to society
Individual theory and abnormal theory	– unhealthy individuals are too much affected by inferior feelings ot pursue the will to power – they may make excuses or have a "yes, but" mentality – if they do pursue goals, however, these are likely to be self–serving and egotistical
Individual theory and therapy	– Adlerian therapy is a PSYCHODYNAMIC approach in which unconsious feelings do play a role. – More importantly, however, is the examination of a person's lifestyle and choices. – Adlerian therapy aims to REDUCE FEELINGS OF INFERIORITY and to FOSTER SOCIAL INTEREST and SOCIAL CONTRIBUTION in patients
Adler's personality typology	1) Ruling–dominant type (choleric) – high in activity but low in social contribution; dominant 2) Getting–leaning type (phlegmatic) – Low in activity and high in social contribution; dependent 3) Avoiding type (melancholic) – Low in activity and low in social contribution; withdrawn 4) Socially useful type (sanguine) – High in actiity and high in social contribution; healthy
Analytic Theory	– founded by Carl Jung – postulated that the PSYCHE was directed twoard LIFE AND AWARENESS (rather than sex)
Jung's View of the Unconscious	1) Personal Unconsious – material from an individuals' own experiences; this can become consious 2) Collective unconsious – dynamics of the psyche inherited from ancestors – this is common to all people and contains the ARCHETYPES
Archetype	– universally meaningful concepts, passed down since the beginning of man – allow us to organize our experiences iwth consistent themes and are indicated by cross–cultural similarity in symbols, folklore, and myths
Persona	– an archetype – a person's outer mask, the mediator to the external world – this is symbolized in culture by masks
Shadow	– an archetype – a person's dark side, often projected onto others – symbolized in cultures by devils and evil spirits
Anima	– the female elements that a man possesses – complements his own maleness
Animus	– the male elements that a female possesses – this complements her own femaleness
Self	– The full individual potential – symbolized in cultures by figures such as Buddha or Jesus and by the MANDALA
Analytic Theory and Therapy	– The approach is psychodynamic because unconscious elements are addressed. – In order to become more aware, unconscious material is explored through the analysis of an individuals' dreams, artwork, and personal symbols. These are all unconsious message expressing themselves.
Client–Centred Theory	– Founded by CARL ROGERS – Also known as PERSON–CENTRED or ROGERIAN theory – is humanistic in that ti has an optimistic outlook on human nature. – its main tenet is taht individuals have an ACTUALIZING TENDENCY that can direct them out of conflict and toward their full potential
Client–Centred Theory and Abnormal Theory	– People who LACK CONGRUENCE between their real selves and their conscious self–concept develop psychological tension. – Incongruence occurs when feelings or experiences are inconsistent with the acknowledged concept of the self. – For example, a self–concept that one is perfect will be shaken by experiences of failure.
Client–centered theory and therapy	– therapy is directed by the client, who decides how often to meet and what to discuss in session – the therapist is NON–DIRECTIVE, providing only an atmosphere for the client's self–exploration – The therapist should provide: 1) EMPATHY (therapist should appreciate rather than just observe the client's world...stand in the shoes of the client), 2) UNCONDITIONAL POSITIVE REGARD (facilitates a trusting and safe environment) and 3) GENUINENESS/CONGRUENCE (no professional reserve)
Goal of client–centered therapy	– to provide a trusting atmosphere in which the client can engage in self–directed growth and tap his own "vast resources" – evidence of growth includes a congruent self–concept, positive self–regard, an internal locus–of–evaluation, and willingness to experience
Criticisms of client–centered theory	– Rogers used no diagnostic tools because he believed that client–centered therapy applied to any psychological problem. Many disagree with this notion.
Behavior theory	– founded by B.F. Skinner, Ivan Pavlov, and Joseph Wolpe – is the application of classical and operant conditioning principles to human abnormal behavior – it is a model of behavior based on learning – RADICAL BEHAVIORISM is associated with Skinner's operant ideas that behavior is related only to its consequences – NEOBEHAVIORISM uses Pavlov's classical counterconditioning principles to create new responses to stimuli
Behaviorism and abnormal theory	– Abnormal behavior is simply the result of LEARNING
Behaviorism and therapy	– therapy is generally short–term and directed – thoughts, feelings and unconscious motivations are not addressed – the therapist uses specific COUNTERCONDITIONING techniques to foster the leraning of new responses in the client
Systematic Desnsitation	– Developed by Joseph Wolpe – Applies CLASSICAL conditioning in order to relieve anxiety – the client is given repeated exposure to the anxiety–producing stimulus in a relaxing situation – the first step is often IMAGERY (imagining the stimulus) – eventually the anxiety response will be extinguished
Flooding or Implosive Therapy	– applies CLASSICAL conditioning in order to relieve anxiety – the client is repeatedly exposed to an anxiety–producing stimulus, so that, eventually, the overexposure simply leads to lessened anxiety
Aversion therapy	–
Aversion therapy	– employs the operant principle of negative reinforcement to increase anxiety – an anxiety–reaction is created where there previously were none – this is generally used to treat fetishes
Shaping	– uses OPERANT conditioning to change behavior – the client is reinforced for behaviors that come closer and closer to the desired action
Modeling	– employs SOCIAL LEARNING principles – this method exposes the client to more adaptive behaviors
Assertiveness training	– provides tools and experience through which the client can become more assertive
Role playing	– allows a client to practice new behaviors and responses
Goal of behavior therapy	– to change behavior in the desired or adaptive direction – has been extremely successful in treating phobias, fetishes, obsessive–compulsive disorder, sexual problems and childhood disorders
Criticisms of behavior therapy	– has been accused of treating the symptoms rather than the underlying problem
Cognitive Theory	– Founded by AARON BECK – gives CONSCIOUS THOUGHT PATTERNS (as opposed to emotions or behaviors) the starring role in people's lives – Beck posited that thoughts determined feelings and behavior. The way a person interprets experience, rather than the experience itself, is what's important.
Cognitive abnormal theory	– Maladaptive cognitions lead to abnormal behavior or disturbed affect
Arbitrary inference	– cognitive – Drawing a conclusion without solid evidence. i.e. "My boss thinks I'm stupid because he never asks me to play golf."
Overgeneralization	– cognitive theory – Mistaking isolated incidents for the norm. i.e. "No one will ever want to be with me."
Magnifying/minimizing	– cognitive theory – Making too much or little of something: "It was luck that I did well on my exam."
Personalizing	– cognitive theory – Inappropriately taking responsibility: "Our office's failed project was all my fault."
Dichotomous thinking	– cognitive theory – Black and white thinking: "If I don't score 750 on the GRE, I'll have no future."
Cognitive Triad	– negative views about the self, the world, and the future that cause depression – the BECK DEPRESSION INVENTORY (BDI) measures such views and is used to gauge the severity of diagnosed depression.
Cognitive Theory and Therapy	– DIRECTED therapy helps to expose and restrucutre maladaptive thought and reasoning patterns – this is usually SHORT–TERM therapy in which the therapist focuses on TANGIBLE EVIDENCE OF THE CLIENT'S LOGIC – the goal of therapy is to correct maladaptive cognitions
Criticisms of cognitive theory	– cognitive theory addresses how a people thinks, rather than why the thought patterns were initially developed – removing the symptoms may not cure the problem
Rational–Emotive Theory	– founded by ALBERT ELLIS – includes elements of cognitive, behavioral, and emotion theory
Rational–Emotive Abnormal Theory	– posits that psychological tensions is created when an Activating event (A) occurs, and a client applies certain Beliefs (B) about the event, and this leads to the Consequence (C) of emotional disruption
Rational–Emotive Therapy	– therapy is highly directive – the therapist leads the client to Dispute (D) the previously applied irrational beliefs – the goal of therapy is for Effective rational beliefs (E) to replace previous self–defeating ones. Then a client's thoughts, feelings and behaviors can coexist
Criticisms of Rational–Emotive Therapy	– like cognitive and behavior therapy, RET has been called too sterile and mechanistic
Gestalt Theory	– Founded by Fritz Perls, Max Wertheimer, and Kurt Koffka – encourages people to stand apart from beliefs, biases, and attitudes derived from the past – the goal is to fully experience and perceive the present in order to become a whole and integrated person
Gestalt Abnormal Theory	– Abnormal behavior is derived from DISTURBANCES OF AWARENESS – the client may not have INSIGHT (the ability to see how all the pieces of experience fit together), or the client may not fully experience his present situation (choosing not to acknowledge certain aspects of the situation)
Gestalt Therapy	– the therapist engages in a DIALOGUE with the client, rather than leading the client toward any particular goal – the client learns from the shared dialogue – together they focus on the here–and–now experience, rather than talking about the past – the goal of therapy is exploration of awareness and full experiencing of the present
Criticisms of Gestalt Therapy	– the therapy is not suited for low–functioning or disturbed clients
Existential Theory	– founded by VIKTOR FRANKL – revolves around age–old philosophical issues, particularly the issue of MEANING – According to existential theory, a person's greatest struggles are those of BEING vs. NON–BEING and of MEANINGFULNESS vs. MEANINGLESSNESS – Frankl called this "Will to meaning"
Rollo May	– a major contributor to existential therapy
Existential Abnormal Theory	– the response to perceived meaninglessness in life is neurosis or NEUROTIC ANXIETY (as opposed to normal or justified anxiety)
Existential Therapy	– is talking therapy in which deep questions relating to the client's perception and meaning of existence are discussed – the goal is to increase a client's sense of being and meaningfulness. This will alleviate neurotic anxiety
Criticisms of existential theory	– this therapy has been called to abstract for severely disturbed individuals
Psychopharmacology	– aims to affect neurotransmitters – the most common neurotransmitters acted upon are dopamine, serotonin and norepinephrine – all of the above are MONOAMINES
Antipsychotics	– the first drugs used for psychopathology – were used to treat positive symptoms of schizophrenia, such as delusions and hallucinations, by blocking DOPAMINE receptors and inhibiting dopamine production – Examples include chlorpromazine (Thorzine) and haloperidol (Haldol)
Antimaniacs	– drugs of choice to manage bipolar disorder – they inhibit monoamines such as norepinephine and serotonin, based on the theory that mania results from excessive monoamines – example: Lithium
Antidepressants	– reduce depressive symptoms by taking the opposite action of antimaniacs – the theory is that abnormally low levels of monoamines cause depression – MONOAMINE OXIDASE INHIBITORS (MAOI) – e.g. phrenelzine (Nardil) – Selective serotoninin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI) – act only on serotonin and so are a great step forward for specific drug effects. e.g. fluoxetine (Prozac), paroxetine (Paxil) and sertraline (Zoloft) – Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs). Have a tricyclic chemical structure. e.g. amitriptyline (Elavil)
Anxiolytics	– used to reduce anxiety or induce sleep – have a high potential for causing habituation and addiction – e.g. barbiturates and benzodiazepines such as diazepam (Valium) and alprazolam (Xanax)
Antabuse	– drug that changes the metapolism of alcohol, resulting in severe nausea nad vomiting when combined with alcohol – can be used to countercondition alcoholics
Hans Eysenck	– criticized the effectiveness of psychotherapy after analyzing studies that indicated psychotherapy was no more succesful than no treatment at all – other studies have since contradicted this point
Anna Freud	– applied Freudian ideas to child psychology and development
Melanie Klein	– pioneered OBJECT–RELATIONS THEORY and psychoanalysis with children
Neo–Freudians	– Karen Horney – emphasized culture and society over instinct. She suggested that neuroticisms is expressed as movement toward, against and away from people. – Harry Stack Sullivan – emphasized social and interpersonal relationships
Psychodynamic theory	– a general term that refers to theories that emphsize the role of the unconsious
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)	– employs principles from cognitive and behavioral theory
Humanistic theory	– a general term that refers to theories (such as client–centered, Gestalt, or existential) that emphasize the positive, evolving, free will in people. This type of theory is optimistic about human nature. It is also known as "Third Force" in psychotherapy in reaciton to psychoanalysis and behavioralism
Abraham Maslow	– leader of teh humanistic movement – best known not for any contribution to therapy, but for his pyramid–like HIERARCHY OF NEEDS, which really pertains to human motivation, with self–actualization at the top
Play therapy	– used with child clients – during play a child client may convey emotions, situations, or disturbances that might otherwise go unexpressed
Electroconvulsive shock therapy (ECT)	– delivers electric current to the brain and induces convulsions – an effective intervention for severely depressed patients
Family therapy	– treats a family together and views the whole family as the client
Stress–inoculation	– developed by DONALD MEICHENBAUM, prepares people for foreseeable stressors
Neil Miller	– proved experimentally that abnormal behavior can be learned
Evidence–based treatment	– refers to treatment that has been shown to produce results in empircal research studies – many clinics and researchers argue that only treatment that has been shown to work in research is ethical – other clinics and researchers argue that controlled experiments are nothing like a real treatment environment and so the results are not as useful as one might suppose
Zygote	– fertilized ovum – goes through three stages of gestation (germinal, embryonic, fetal)
Germinal stage	– lasts two weeks, during which time the zygote moves down the fallopian tube, brows into 64 cells through cell division, and implants itself into the wall of the uterus
Embryonic stage	– lasts until the end of the second month and consists of genitalia and organ formation
Fetal stage	– lasts from the third month until birth – quantitative growth occurs during this time, as well as movement (called "quickening") – if a fetus has the steroid hormone ANDROGEN in its bloodstream, it will be male; if it is lacking androgens it will be female
Neonate	– a newborn – the behavior of neonates is reflexive
Reflexes	– sucking, head turning, moro, babinski, palmar
Head turning reflex	– elicited by stroking the baby's cheek
Moro reflex	– the throwing out of arms and legs elicited by loud or frightening noises
Babinski reflex	– the fanning of the toes elicited by touching the bottom of the baby's foot
Palmar reflex	– the hand grasping elicited by placing an object in the baby's hand
Adolescence	– lasts from 13 to 19 and begins with the onset of puberty – adrenal and pituitary glands secrete hormones (androgen for boys and estrogen for girls) that cause the visible secondary sex characteristics and the growth spurt
Jean Piaget	– best known for his work in child development, in particular for his theory of child cognitive development – he asserted that humans experience an interaction between internal maturation and external experience that creates qualititate change – this ADAPTATION happens through ASSIMILATION (fitting new information into existing ideas) and ACCOMODATION (modification of cognitive schemata to incorporate new information)
Sensorimotor	– Jean Piaget – lasts from 0–2 years – first, reflexive behavior cued by sensations; then CIRCULAR REACTIONS (repeated behavior intended to manipulate environment); later, development of OBJECT PERMANENCE (knowing an object exists even when it can no longer be seen); finally, acquiring the use of REPRESENTATION (visualizing or putting words to objects)
Preoperational	– Jean Piaget – 2–7 years – EGOCENTRIC understanding; rapidly acquiring words as symbols for things; inability to perform mental operations, such as causality or true understanding of quantity – no conservation – centration (the tendency to focus on just one feature of a problem, neglecting other important aspects) – irreversibility (the inability to envision reversing an action) – animism
Concrete Operational	– Jean Piaget – 7–12 years – understanding of concrete relationships, such as simple math and quantity – development of conservation – mastery of reversibility and decentration and decline in egocentrism
Formal Operational	– Jean Piaget – 12+ years – understanding of abstract relationships, such as logic, ratios, and values
Rochel Gelman	– showed that Piaget might have underestimated the cognitive ability of preschoolers – Golmen said they can deal with ideas such as quantity in small sets of objects
Piaget's theory of moral development	– 4–7 years – imitate rule–following behavior; do not question acceptance of rules – 7–11 years – understand rules and follow them – 12+ years – apply abstract thinking to rules; can change rules if all parties agree
Sigmund Freud's theory of personality development	– Oral – Birth–18 mos – receives pleasure orally through sucking, eating, biting – Anal – 18 mos– 3 yrs – receives pleasure with teh control and release of feces – Phallic – 3–6 yrs – receives pleasure from self–stimulation of genitals. Boys develop an Oedipus Complex; girls develop an Electra Complex; – Latency – adolescence – repressed sexuality; identification with same–sex friends; focus on school and growing up – Genital – adolescence–adulthood; love object is now nonfamilial
Heinz Dilemma	– developed by Lawrence Kohlberg in studying his theory of moral development – a woman is dying and needs an expensive medication. Because the woman's husband cannot afford the medication, the dilemma is whether he should steal it or let his wife die.
Preconventional/Premoral	– Lawrence Kohlberg – Level 1 – should avoid punishment – Level 2 – should gain rewards
Conventional/Morality of Conformity	– Lawrence Kohlberg – Level 3 – should gain approval – Level 4 – should follow law and authority
Postconventional/Morality of Self–accepted principles	– Lawrence Kohlberg – Level 5 – beyond the black and white of laws; attentive to rights and social welfare – Level 6 – makes decisions based on abstract ethical principles
Carol Gilligan	– asserted that Kohlberg's moral development theory was biased toward males because it was domianted by rules, whereas women's morality focuses more on compassion
Erik Erikson's Life Span Development Theory	1) Trust vs. Mistrust – Birth–18mos – resolution = trust 2) Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt – 18 mos – 3 yrs – independence 3) Initiative vs. Guilt – 3–6 yrs – purpose 4) Industry vs. Inferiority – 6–puberty – competency 5) Identity vs. Role Confusion (identity crisis) – Teen yrs – sense of self 6) Intimacy vs. isolation – Young adult – love 7) Productivity vs. Stagnation (Self–absorption) – Middle age 8) Ego Integrity vs. Despair – Old age – wisdom and integrity
John Bowlby	– suggested that infants are motivated to attach to their mothers for Positive reasons (wanting closeness) and for Negative reasons (avoiding fear). – emphasized the importance of the mother–infant attachment during the infant's sensitive period to prevent character and stability problems.
Mary Ainsworth	– studied attachment through the use of the STRANGE SITUATION – overall, infants cried when a stranger entered the room (stranger anxiety) and when their mothers left the room (separation anxiety) – Infants responded differently when their mothers entered the room: Securely attached; Ambivalent; squirmed or kicked if their mothers tried to comfort them. – securely attached infants more readily explore their environment than insecurely attached infants – her work has been carried on by MARY MAIN
Diana Baumrind	– studied the relationship between parenting style and personality development – AUTHORITARIAN (demanding, unaffectionate, strict) parents had children who were withdrawn and unhappy – PERMISSIVE (affectionate, not strict) parents had children who were happy but lacking in self–control and self–reliance – AUTHORITATIVE (affectionate, firm but fair) had self–reliant, self–confident, assertive, friendly, happy, high–functioning kids. These parents helped children understand and accept the norms of society so that they function well within it.
John Watson's Behavioristic Approach to Development	– asserted that children were passively mold yb the environment and that their behavior emerges through imitation of their parents.
Motor Development	– During the first two years of life is largely controlled by INTERNAL, MATURATIONAL factors. But countless studies have shown that interacting with infants through attention and affection fosters their physical, emotional, and intellectual development. – Neglected children in institutions and orphanages show higher incidences of mental retardation and mortality, and poorer physical development.
Arnold Gessell	– an early child developmentalist who believed that nature provided only a "blueprint for development" through maturation and that environment or nurture filled in the details
Early aggressiveness	– children identified as aggressive at an early age have a moderate tendency to remain aggressive through later life.
Sex–typed behavior	– is low during prepubescence, highest in young adulthood, and lower again in later life
Boy who reach puberty early	– have been shown to be psychologically and socially advantaged
Hermaphrodite or Intersex	– is someone born with both female and male genitals – this is most likely the result of a female fetus being exposed to a higher than normal level of testosterone
Central Nervous System (CNS)	– Made up of two parts: 1) Brain, 2) Spinal cord
Peripheral nervous system (PNS)	– The pathway that runs to and from the CNS.
Afferent fibers	– run towards the central nervous system
Efferent fibers	– run away from the central nervous system
Somatic Nervous System	– part of the PNS – controls voluntary movements of striated muscles
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)	– part of the PNS – controls the involuntary physiology of smooth muscles, such as digestion, blood circulation, and breathing. – the ANS responds more slowly than the somatic nervous system, which is why we act first in an emergency and then feel the fear.
Sympathetic Nervous system	– part of the ANS – controls arousal mechanisms – e.g. temperature control, blood circulation, puil dilation, and threat and fear responses – Lie detector tests rest on the premise that lying activates the sympathetic nervous system
Parasympathetic	– is responsible for recuperation after arousal – activates processes that allow the body to save and store energy (e.g. slow heart rate, reduce blood pressure, and promote digestion)
Spinal cord	– inner core consists of GRAY MATTER (cell bodies and dendrites) – outer covering consists of WHITE MATTER (nerve fibers, axon bundles, and myelin sheathing)
Hindbrain	– consists of: 1) Medulla oblongata, 2) Cerebellum, 3) Pons 4) Base of the reticular formation
Medulla Oblongata	– Part of the hindbrain – Controls breathing, heartbeat, and blood pressure – regulates reflexes such as sneezing, couging, and salivating
Cerebellum	– Part of the hindbrain – Controls muscle coordination, balance, posture; its size is related to amount of muscular activity
Pons	– Part of the hindbrain – connects brain part to spine – also contains several clusters of cell bodies involved with sleep and arousal
Base of reticular formation	– part of the hindbrain – considered the OLDEST PART of the brain – controls alertness, thirst, sleep, and involuntary muscles such as the heart
Midbrain	– consists of: 1) the rest of the reticular formation, 2) tectum, 3) tegmentum
Tectum	– part of the midbrain – controls vision and hearing
Tegmentum	– part of the midbrain – controls sleep, arousal, and eye movements
Forebrain	– the largest and most complex region of hte brain, encompassing a variety of structures – consists of: 1) corticospinal tract, 2) thalamus, 3) hypothalamus, 4) limbic system, 5) cerebrum
Corticospinal tract	– the connections between the brain and spine
Thalamus	– a structure in the forebrain through which all sensory information (except smell) must pass to get to the cerebral cortex (aka. "waystation")
Hypothalamus	– a structure found near the base of the forebrain that is involved in the regulation of basic biological needs – controls ANS biological motivations, such as hunger and thirst, and the pituitary gland
Pituitary gland	– "master gland" of the endocrine or hormone system
Limbic system	– a group of structures around the brainstem involved in emotional activity and pleasure centers
Hippocampus	– part of the LIMBIC SYSTEM – thought to be involved in memory by the encoding of new information
Amygdala	– part of the LIMBIC SYSTEM – controls emotional reactions, such as fear and anger
Cingulate Gyrus	– part of the LIMBIC SYSTEM – links areas in the brain dealing with emotion and decisions
Cerebral hemispheres	– the largest part of the brain – responsible for movement and higher functions – each hemisphere controls the limbs on the opposite side
Corpus collosum	– connects the hemispheres, so they can communicate
Left hemisphere	– controls speech and motor control
Right hemisphere	– controls spacial perception and musical ability
Cerebral cortex	– the outer half–inch of the cerebral hemispheres – the seat of sensory and intellectual functions – split into lobes – also known as the NEOCORTEX – GYRI (bumps) and SULCI (fissures) are seen on the cortex surface.
Frontal Lobe	– controls motor, speech, reasoning, and problem solving – houses BROCA'S and WERNICKE'S areas for speech
Occipital Lobe	– responsible for vision
Parietal Lobe	– responsible for somatosensory
Temporal Lobe	– responsible for hearing
Meninges	– tough connective tissues covering the brain and spinal cord
Ventricles	– chambers filled with cerebrospinal fluid that insulate the brain from shock
Superior colliculus	– controls visual reflexes – appears as a bump on the brainstem
Inferior colliculus	– controls auditory reflexes – appears as a bump on the brainstem
Basal ganglia	– control muscle movements – their degeneration is related to motor dysfunction in Parkinson's and Huntington's diseases
Cortical association areas	– areas on the cortex that correspond to certain functions. The larger the area, the more sensitive and highly accessed is the corresponding function.
Apraxia	– inability to organize movement
Agnosia	– difficult processing sensory information
Aphasia	– language disorder – see Broca's and Wernicke's
Alexia	– inability to read
Agraphia	– inability to write
Broca's aphasia	– caused by damage to Broca's area in the brain – someone with Broca's aphasia can understand speech but has difficulty speaking (often speaking slowly and laboriously and omitting words)
Wernicke's aphasia	– caused by damage to Wernicke's area in the brain – person can speak but no longer understands how to correctly choose words – speech is fluent but nonsensical
Hyperphagia	– overeating with no satiation of hunger – leads to obesity – damage to the ventromedial region of the hypothalamus has produced this in animals
Sham rage	– incredible rage easily provoked when the cerebral cortex is removed
Stereotaxic instruments	– used to implant electrodes into animals' brains in experiments
Blooming and pruning process	– a process in which neutral pathways are connected and then some are allowed to die out
Dendrites	– neuron branches that receive impulses – their branching patterns change throughout life
Cell body (SOMA)	– the largest central portion of the nerve – it makes up GRAY MATTER – has a nucleus that directs the neuron's activity
Axon hillock	– where the soma and the axon connect
Axon	– transmits impulses of the neuron – bundles of these are nerve fibers, also known as WHITE MATTER – the wider a nerve fiber, the faster its conduction of impulses
Myelin sheath	– a fatty, insulating sheath on some axons that allows faster conduction of axon impulses – it looks like beads on a string
Schwann cell	– the beadlike part of the myelin sheath
Nodes of Ranvier	– the dips between the "beads" on the myelin sheath – they help send the impulse down the axon
Terminal Buttons	– the jumping–off points for impulses – they contain SYNAPTIC VESSELS that hold NEUROTRANSMITTERS
Cell membrane	– covers the whole neuron and has selective permeability – sometimes it lets positive charges (ions) through
Synapse (synaptic gap)	– the space between two neurons where they communicate
Persynaptic cell	– the end of one neuron (the terminal buttons) – fires and releases neurotransmitters from its terminal buttons
Postsynaptic cell	– the beginning of another neuron (the dendrites) – postsynaptic receptors detect the presents of neurotransmitters and cause the ion channels to open
Resting potential	– the inactivated state of a nueron – the neuron is negatively charged at this point, and the cell membrane does not let positive charges in
Postsynaptic potentials	– changes in a nerve cell's charge as the result of stimulation. – two form: excitatory postsynaptic potential and inhibitory
Excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)	– in this case, positive charges from the outside are allowed into the cell in a process called depolarization – this may case the nerve to fire
Inhibatory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)	– in this case, the few positive charges in the cell body are let out, and the cell becomes HYPERPOLARIZED (or even more negative compared to the outside) – this makes the cell even less likely to fire a nerve impulse
Action potential (nerve impulse)	– begins when a cell becomes stimulated with enough positive ions and "fires"
All–or–none law	– refers to the fact that once a minimum threshold for stimulation is met, the nerve impulse will be sent – the intensity of the nerve impulse is always the same, regardless of the amount of stimulation – intensity of stimulation is indicated by how many signals are fired, not by how strong the signals are
Absolute refractory period	– the time after a neuron fires in which it cannot respond to stimulation
Relative refractory period	– the time after the absolute refractory period when the neuron can fire, but it needs a much stronger stimulus
Neurotransmitter after nerve firing	– after the neurotransmitter has done its job, it is either reabsorbed by the presynaptic cell via REUPTAKE, or it is deactivated by enzymes – these processes keep the messenger from continually stimulating neurons
Acetylcholine	– contracts skeletal muscles – appears to contribute to attention, arousal, and perhaps memory
Monoamines	– comprises two classes of neurotransmitters: – IDOLAMINES, which include SEROTONIN (linked to depression) – CATECHOLAMINES – include dopamine (lack of which is associated with Parkinson's and too much is associated with schizophrenia)
Neuromodulators	– are like neurotransmitters, but they cause long–term changes in the postsynaptic cell
Androgens	– in the bloodstream determines whether an infant mammal will be a male.
hormones at adolescence	– males receive a dose of androgens, and females receive a dose of estrogens.
Follicle–stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone	– regulate the development of sperm and ovum.
Proclactin	– stimulates milk production
Antidiuretic hormone	– causes water retention
Thyroid Gland	– is triggered by a hormone from the pituitary, the THYROID–STIMULATING HORMONE
Electroencephalograms (EEGs)	– measure brain–wave patterns and have made it possible to study waking and sleeping states.
Non–REM sleep	– altogether it takes about a half hour to pass through the first four stages of sleep
Stage 0 sleep	– prelude to sleep – low–amplitude and fast–frequency alpha waves appear in the brain; these waves are also known as NEURAL SYNCHRONY – a person becomes relaxed and drowsy and closes his eyes.
Stage 1 sleep	– the eyes begin to roll – alpha waves give way to irregular THETA WAVES (lower in amplitude and slower in frequency) – the person loses responsiveness to stimuli, experiences fleeting thoughts
Stage 2 sleep	– The THETA WAVE stage, characterized by fast frequency bursts of brain activity called SLEEP SPINDLES – is also marked by muscle tension and accompanied by gradual decline in heart rate, respiration, and temperature
Stage 3 sleep	– Takes about 30 minutes after falling asleep – Fewer sleep spindles occur – high–amplitude and low–frequency DELTA WAVES appear
Stave 4 sleep	– DELTA WAVES occur more than 50 percent of the time – these delta waves demarcate the DEEPEST LEVELS OF SLEEP, when heart rate, respiration, temperature, and blood flow to the brain are reduced and growth hormones are secreted – a person roused from stage 4 sleep will be groggy and confused
REM	– approximately 20 PERCENT of sleep time is spent in REM – REM is interspersed with non–REM sleep every 30 to 40 minutes – is when dreams are experienced – characterized by the same fast–frequency, low–amplitude BETA WAVES (NEURAL DESYNCHONY) that characterize waking states
REM 2	– REM sleep is also known as PARADOXICAL SLEEP – beta waves and a person's physiological signs – heart rate, breathing, and blood pressure – resemble those in a waking state, but muscle tone decreases to the point of PARALYSIS, with sudden twitches, especially in the face and hands – lasts from 15 minutes at the beginning of a sleep cycle to 1 hour at the end of it
Rebound effect	– occurs when people are deprived of REM sleep – they will compensate by spending more time in REM sleep later in the night
Sleep cycles	– people complete four to six complete sleep cycles each night – each cycle lasts about 90 minutes – early in the night most of the time is spend in Stage 3 and 4 sleep – stage 2 and REM sleep predominate later in the night
Infants and sleep	– infants sleep about 16 hours a day – REM sleep comprises about half of total sleep at birth, and eventually decreases to only 25 percent