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69 Cards in this Set
- Front
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Norman Triplett |
published what is thought to be first work of social psychology on the effect competition has on performance, identified social facilitation (people perform better on familiar tasks when in the presence of others than when alone) |
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William McDougall, E.H. Ross |
published first textbooks on social psychology |
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Verplank |
studies in 1950s showing social approval influences behavior, his study showed that the course of a conversation changes dramatically based upon the feedback (approval) of others |
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Reinforcement Theory |
behavior is motivated by anticipated rewards |
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Role theory |
developed by Bindle is the perspective that people are aware of the social roles they are expected to fill, and much of their observable behavior can be attributed to adopting those roles |
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Consistency theories |
people prefer consistency, and will change or resist changing attitudes based upon this preference. if the person is aware of an inconsistency, he/she will resolve to change it, or change his/her attitude ex. Fritz Heider's Balance Theory, Leon Festinger's Cognitive Dissonance Theory |
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Balance Theory |
developed by Fritz Heider, theory that concerns itself with the way three elements are related. if the three fit together harmoniously, there's balance; if not, there will be stress, and a tendency to remove the stress by achieving balance |
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Leon Festinger |
devised cognitive dissonance theory |
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free-choice dissonance |
situation in which a person makes a choice between several desirable alternatives |
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forced-compliance dissonance |
situation in which an individual is forced into behaving in a manner that is inconsistent with his or her beliefs or attitudes |
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post-decisional dissonance |
when dissonance emerges after a choice is made |
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spreading of alternatives |
an attempt to reduce dissonance by spreading apart the relative worth of the two alternatives (accentuating the relative positivity or negativity of either of the alternatives) |
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Minimal justification effect/insufficient justification effect |
when behavior can be justified by means of external inducements, there is no need to change internal cognitions; however, when the external justification is minimal, you will reduce your dissonance by changing internal cognitions. shown best by Festinger and Carlsmith in an experiment where people did a boring task and then were expected to mislead the next person by saying it was enjoyable and interesting for either $1 or $20. Those given $1 justified their behavior and greater dissonance by claiming the task was actually enjoyable
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Two principles of cognitive dissonance |
1. if a person is pressured to do something contrary to his or her privately held attitudes, there will be a tendency for him or her to change those attitudes 2. the greater the pressure to comply, the less the attitude change. ultimately, attitude change generally occurs when the behavior is induced with minimum pressure |
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self-perception theory |
devised by Daryl Bem, people infer what their attitudes are based upon observation of their own behavior, assumes that the personal attitude is irrelevant and the behavior does not induce dissonance/discomfort |
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overjustification effect |
if you reward people for something they already like doing, they may stop doing it |
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sleeper effect |
in Carl Hovland's model, over time, the persuasive impact of the high credibility source decreased while the pervasive impact of the low-credibility source increased |
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Carl Hovland's Model |
views attitude change as a process of communicating a message with the intent to persuade someone. - highly credible sources were more effective in changing attitudes at first - sleeper effect over time - perceived credibility increases if the source argues against his/her own self-interest |
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two-sided messages |
contain arguments for and against a position, used for persuasion as they appear more balanced |
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Elaboration Likelihood Model of Persuasion |
developed by Petty and Cacioppo, this model suggests that there are two routes to persuasion: the central route (issue is important to us) and peripheral route (issue is not important, or message is not clear) |
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Analogy of Inoculation |
William McGuire, people can be inoculated against the attack of persuasive communications; cultural truisms that are not inoculated are quite susceptible to attack |
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cultural truisms |
beliefs that are seldom questioned |
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belief perseverence |
people will hold beliefs even after those beliefs have been shown to be false. |
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reactance |
if you try too hard to persuade someone of something, that person will choose to believe the opposite of your position |
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social comparison theory |
Leon Festinger, humans are drawn to affiliate because of a tendency to evaluate ourselves in relationship to others; three principles: 1. people prefer to evaluate themselves by objective, nonsocial means; in the case this is impossible, people evaluate their opinions and abilities through comparison to others 2. the less the similarity of opinions/abilities between two people, the less the tendency to make comparisons 3. when a discrepancy exists, there's a tendency to change one's position so as to move it inline with the group |
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Stanley Schachter |
greater anxiety leads to a greater desire to affiliate, while little anxiety does not lead to a desire to affiliate found anxious people prefer the company of other anxious people (perceived similarity is a factor in the affiliation) |
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Reciprocity hypothesis |
we tend to like people who indicate they like us; inverse is also true we don't just evaluate a person's qualities and arrive at a like, or a dislike, without also taking into account the other person's evaluation of us |
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gain-loss principle |
Aronson and Linder, the principle states that changes will have more of an impact than an evaluation that remains constant we will like someone more who has increased their liking of us as opposed to someone who has consistently liked us and vice versa |
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social exchange theory |
the theory that assumes that a person weighs the rewards and costs of interacting with another, people attempt to maximize rewards and minimize costs |
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equity theory |
the theory that proposes that we consider not only our own costs and rewards, but the costs and rewards of the other person. we prefer that our ratio of costs to rewards be equal to that of the other person, and if one feels he or she is getting less, or more, out of the relationship than the other, there'll be an instability due to the perceived inequity |
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need complementarity |
people choose relationships so that they mutually satisfy each other's needs, yet usually have fundamental similarities in some attitudes |
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attractiveness stereotype |
the tendency to attribute qualities and desirable characteristics to attractive people |
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spatial proximity |
people will generally develop a greater liking for someone who lives within a few blocks than for someone who lives in a different neighborhood; even small differences in proximity can have an effect, perhaps explained by the intensity of the initial interactions |
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mere exposure hypothesis |
more repeated exposure to a stimulus leads to enhanced liking for it Robert Zajonc is a key figure in this research |
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helping behavior |
prosocial behavior that benefit others or groups of people, can be motivated by altruism, or egoism and selfishness (some argue that helping behavior only occurs when there is some benefit to the individual offering help) |
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altruism |
a form of helping behavior in which the person's intent is to benefit someone else at some cost to himself or herself |
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bystander intervention |
John Darley and Bibb Latane research on the Kitty Genovese murder as a person weighs the costs and rewards of helping and attempts to resolve the conflict between helping and not helping, the fact that others are in a position to help may sway the person toward not helping 2 situational influences: social (the presence of others may lead to an interpretation of an event as a nonemergency) and diffusion of responsibility (individual will not be held directly responsible for not helping) |
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pluralistic ignorance |
leading others to a definition of an event as a nonemergency |
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empathy |
the ability to vicariously experience the emotions of another, and it is thought by some social psychologists to be a strong influence on helping behavior |
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empathy-altruism model |
Batson, theorizes that when faced with situations in which others may need help, people might feel distress and/or they might feel empathy; either can determine helping behavior (detractors argue that helping behavior only occurs when there is some benefit to the individual offering help) |
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frustration-aggression hypothesis |
when people are frustrated, they act aggressively, strength of frustration is positively correlated with the level of aggression |
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social learning theory |
posits that learning is a cognitive process that takes place in a social context and can occur purely through observation or direct instruction, even in the absence of motor reproduction or direct reinforcement. Bandura and Bobo doll experiment (children more likely to act aggressively towards doll when that behavior was modeled by an adult), aggression is learned through modeling or through reinforcement |
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Muzafer Sherif |
performed famous conformity study in which subject's solitary estimates of the amount of movement of a point of light changed so that the group agreed upon the amount of movement (individuals conformed to the group and their judgments converged on some group norm) |
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Solomon Asch |
performed conformity study that shows conformity as yielding to group pressure when no explicit demand has been made to do so, experiment consisted of naming the longest line, subject often changed answer (even if ridiculous) to conform with other guesses |
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Stanley Milgram's Obedience Experiment |
the drive to obey was stronger than the drive not to hurt someone against his will |
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foot-in-the-door effect |
compliance with a small request increases the likelihood of compliance with a larger request |
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door-in-the-face effect |
people who refuse a large initial request are more likely to agree to a later smaller request |
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Clark and Clark Doll Preference Study |
a study which showed that the majority of white and black children preferred the white doll, highlighting the negative effects of racism and minority group status on the self-concept of black children |
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primacy effect |
those occasions when first impressions are more important than subsequent impressions |
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recency effect |
when the most recent information we have about an individual is most important in forming our impressions |
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attribution theory |
devised by Fritz Heider, the tendency to attribute a person's behavior to either dispositional or situational causes |
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halo effect |
the tendency to allow a greater impression about a person to influence other, more specific evaluations of a person (explains why people are often inaccurate in evaluations of others when they believe the others to be generally good, or generally bad) |
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just-world theory |
the generally held belief that people get what they deserve, studied by M.J. Lerner |
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Theodore Newcomb's Study |
a famous experiment at Bennington College that demonstrated the lessening conservatism of women at the college the longer they were students there |
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proxemics |
the study of how individuals space themselves in relation to others, based on cultural norms, studied by Edward Hall |
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Zajonc's Theory |
the presence of others increases arousal and consequently enhances the emission of dominant responses during the early stages of learning, dominant responses are likely to be wrong and the presence of others would enhance the wrong movement |
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social loafing |
a group phenomenon referring to the tendency for people to put forth less effort when part of a group effort than when acting indivually |
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deindividuation |
a loss of self-awareness, self-control, and personal identity when anonymized within a group |
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groupthink |
devised by Irving Janis, the tendency of decision-making groups to strive for consensus by not considering discordant information |
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risky shift |
the finding that group decisions are riskier than the average of the individual choices (and this average riskiness of the individual choices can be considered to be an estimate of the group's original riskiness) |
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group polarization |
the tendency for group discussion to enhance the group's initial tendencies toward riskiness or caution this was a modification of risky shift, shown by James Stoner (showed a shift with group decisions towards caution instead of risk), pointing out that group decisions tend to be extreme in one way or another |
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Kurt Lewin's study |
studied the effects of different leadership styles: autocratic, democratic, and laissez-faire. Laissez-faire: less efficient, less organized, and less satisfying Autocratic: more hostile, more aggressive, and more dependent on the leader; quantity of work was greater Democratic: more cohesive and satisfying, work motivation and interest were stronger |
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cooperation |
persons act together for their mutual benefit so that all of them can obtain a goal |
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competition |
a person acts for his/her individual benefit so that he or she can obtain a goal that has limited availability |
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prisoner's dilemma |
neither confess: both charged with a misdemeanor both confess: both will be prosecuted with a moderate sentence one confesses, other doesn't: confessor will have his/her charges dropped and other will be prosecuted for the felony with max. sentence dilemma: prisoner wants what's best for him/herself; doesn't trust other prisoner and doesn't want to be left holding the bag |
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Robber's Cave Experiment |
conducted by Muzafer Sherif to study how hostilities were created through competition and then reduced through cooperation, at a boy's camp |
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superordinate goals |
devised by Muzafer Sherif, goals that are best obtained through intergroup cooperation, help to dramatically improve intergroup relations |
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A. Eagly |
suggested that gender differences in conformity were not due to gender per se, but to differing social roles |
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E. Hall |
studied norms for interpersonal distance in interpersonal interactions |
