Gre Psych (Cognition)

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cognitive psychology

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study of thinking, processing, and reasoning

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concepts

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how one represents the relationships between two things. We organize our world through concepts

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hypotheses

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ideas used to test relationships and then to form concepts

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mental set

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aka set. Preconceived notion of how to look at a problem. May help future problem solving

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schema

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cognitive structure that includes ideas about events or objects and the attributes that accompany them. New events and objects are categorized based on how well they match with existing attributes

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scripts

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ideas about the way events typically unfold

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prototypes

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are the "representative" or "usual" type of an event or object (like stereotypes--e.g. scientist is good at math and does not write poetry)

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insight

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having a new perspective on an old problem--A-ha! experience

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convergent thinking

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type of thinking used to find the one solution to a problem. e.g. math

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J.P. Guilford

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first defined convergent and divergent thinking

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divergent thinking

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used when more than one possibility exists in a situation. e.g. creative thinking, a dissenter in a group leads to divergent thinking

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functional fixedness

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people develop closed minds about the functions of certain objects. Cannot think of creative uses or think divergently

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problem space

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sum total of possible moves that one might make in order to solve a problem

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algorithms

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problem-solving strategies that consider every possible solution and eventually hit on the correct solution. May take long time

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heuristics

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problem-solving strategies that use rules of thumb or short-cuts based on what has worked in the past. Cannot guarantee a solution, but is faster than an algorithm

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metacognition

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process of thinking about your own thinking. Might involve knowing what solving strategies to apply and when to apply them, or knowing how to adapt your thinking to new situations

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meditation

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intervening mental process that occurs between stimulus and response. Reminds us what to do or how to respond based on ideas or past learning.

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computer simulation models

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designed to solve problems as humans do

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Allen Newell and Herbert Simon

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introduced the first computer simulation model, called the "Logic theorist", and then revamped it (today called the "General Problem Solver")

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Logic theorist

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first computer simulation model. Today is called the "General Problem Solver"

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deductive reasoning

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leads to specific conclusions that must follow from the information given

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inductive reasoning

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leads to general rules that are inferred from specifics

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logical reasoning errors

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"atmosphere effect", "semantic effect", and "confirmation bias"

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atmosphere effect

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logical reasoning error in which a conclusion is influenced by the way information is phrased

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semantic effect

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logical reasoning error in which one believes in a conclusion because of what one knows or thinkgs to be correct rather than what logically follows from the information given

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confirmation effect

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logical reasoning error in which one remembers and uses information that confirms what one already thinks

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reaction time

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used to measure cognitive processing. Also called "latency". Response speed for all kinds of tasks declines significantly with age.

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latency

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"reaction time"

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Elizabeth Loftus and Allan Collins

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suggested that people have hierarchical semantic networks in their memory that group together related items. The more closely related 2 items are, the more closely they are located in the hierarchy, and the more quickly a subject can link them

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Allan Collins and Ross Quillian

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assert that people make decisions about the relationship between items by searching their cognitive semantic hierarchies. The farther apart in the hierarchy, the longer it will take to see a connection

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association between pictures vs. associations between words

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associations between pictures takes longer probably because pictures must mentally be put into words before associations can be made

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semantic priming

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in a word-recognition task, is the presentation of a related item before the next item. Decreases reaction time because it activates the node of the second item in the semantic hierarchy.

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Stroop effect

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decreased speed of naming the color of ink used to print words when the color of ink and the word itself are of different colors

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bottom-up processing

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recognizing an item or pattern from data or details. Data driven

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top-down processing

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guided by large concepts

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automatic processing

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when a task is effortlessly done because the task is subsumed under a higher organization process

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eye movements and gaze durations

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indicators of info processing while reading

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saccades

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eye movements from one fixation point to another

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James-Lange Theory of Emotion

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Theory that addresses biological and cognitive components of emotion. Claims that bodily reactions to situations cause emotion. First, physiological responses are present in situations, then we feel the emotion that comes with these bodily reactions.

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Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion

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aka Emergency theory. Theory that addresses biological and cognitive components of emotion. Asserts that amotions and bodily reactions occur simultaneously. In emotional situations, our body is cued to react in the brain (emotion) and in the body (biological).

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Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer

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proposed a "Cognitive Theory of Emotion" called the "Schachter-Singer theory"

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Cognitive Theory of Emotion

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aka Schachter-Singer theory". Asserts that emotions are the products of physiological reactions. But, they claim that cognitions are the missing link the the chain. A particular body state is felt. Since many different situations produce similar bodily reactions, the cognition we attach to a situation determines which emotion we feel in response.