Gre-Physio Psych

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Franz Gall

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had one of the earliest theories that behavior, intellect, and personality might be linked to brain anatomy
-developed doctrine of phrenology

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phrenology

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idea that if a particular trait were well developed, a portion of the brain responsible for the trait would expand, pushing the skull outward and resulting in a bulge on the head
-generated serious research on brain functions, impetus for work of Pierre Flourens

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Pierre Flourens

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first to study the functions of the major sections of the brain using ablation in pigeons
-led to assertion that certain parts of brain had certain functions, and that removal of one part weakens the whole brain

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ablation/extirpation

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various parts of the brain are removed, and behavioral consequences are observed

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William James

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believed it was important to study how the mind functioned in adapting to the environment
-among the fathers of functionalism in psychology

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functionalism

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system of thought in psychology concerned with studying how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environments

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John Dewey

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another important contributor to functionalism
-criticized the concept of the reflex arc
-believed study should be of organism as a whole as it functioned to adapt to the environment

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Paul Broca

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examined behavioral deficits of persons with brain damage
-first to demonstrate that certain functional impairments could be linked to brain lesions
-found a man was unable to speak due to lesion on certain area of brain
-later referred to as Broca's area

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Phineas Gage

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early example of relation between brain lesions and functional impairment
-behavioral and personality changes resulting from brain damage

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Johannes Muller

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identified the law of specific nerve energies

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law of specific nerve energies

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each sensory nerve is excited by only one kind of energy (e.g., light, air vibrations)
-brain interprets any kind of stimulation of that sensory nerve as that one kind of energy
-sensation depends more on specific part of brain activated by sensory nerves than actual stimulus that does the activation

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Hermann von Helmholtz

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first to measure the speed of a nerve impulse

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Sir Charles Sherrington

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first inferred presence of synapses
-thought synaptic transmission was electrical
-later shown to be chemical

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three kinds of nerve cells in the nervous system

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sensory, motor and interneurons

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sensory neurons/ AFFERENT neurons

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transmit sensory info from sensory receptors to spinal cord and brain

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motor neurons/EFFERENT neurons

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transmit motor info from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles

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interneurons

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found between other neurons
-are most numerous type of neuron
-located predominantly in the brain and spinal cord
-linked to reflexive behavior

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reflexive behavior

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-controlled by neural circuits called reflex arcs
-reflexes control behavior crucial to survival
e.g. if you step on a nail, sensory neurons transmit impulses signaling pain
-when impulses reach spinal cord, interneurons transmit info to motor neurons, and motor neurons tell foot to move away from nail

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breakdown of the nervous system

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C P
B/SC S/A
I
PS/S

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Central nervous system

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brain, spinal cord

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Peripheral nervous system

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somatic nervous system, autonomic nervous system
-made up of tissues outside the brain and spinal cord
-connects the CNS to the rest of the body

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Autonomic nervous system

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parasympathetic nervous system, sympathetic nervous system

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Somatic nervous system

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consists of sensory and motor neurons distributed throughout the skin and muscles
-sensory neurons transmit info along AFFERENT fibers, which ASCEND up to the brain
-motor neurons transmit info along EFFERENT FIBERS, which EXIT the brain and spinal cord on their way to the muscles

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Walter Cannon

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did pioneering work on the autonomic nervous system
-developed the conceptualization of homeostatis

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functions of the autonomic nervous system

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-regulates heartbeat, respiration, digestion, and glandular secretions
-manages involuntary muscles associated with many organs and glands
-helps regulate body temperature
-AUTOMATIC FUNCTIONS
-AUTONOMIC-AUTOMATIC

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Parasympathetic nervous system

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PARACHUTE--goes down
-main function of PNS is to conserve energy
-associated with resting and sleeping states
-acts to reduce heart and respiration rates, increase digestion (promotes RESTING AND DIGESTING)
-Acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter responsible for parasympathetic responses in the body

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Sympathetic nervous system

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RISES UP TO THE DEFENSE
-activated whenever face stressful situations
-closely associated with fear/rage, FIGHT OR FLIGHT reactions

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fight or flight reactions

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-increases in heart rate
-increases in blood sugar level
-increases in respiration
-decrease in digestion
-pupil dilation
-release of adrenaline

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lobes of the brain

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Fried Penises Turn Orange
Frontal---Parietal
Temporal---Occipital

Under Occipital=Cerebellum
Next to Cerebellum=Brain stem

Brain stem smaller than Cerebellum

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three basic subdivisions of the brain

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HINDBRAIN
MIDBRAIN
FOREBRAIN

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hindbrain

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located where brain meets spinal cord
-primary functions=balance, motor coordination, breathing, digestion, general arousal processes (e.g. sleeping/waking)

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midbrain

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-just above the hindbrain
-manages sensorimotor reflexes that promote reflexes
-receives sensory and motor info
MIDbrain=MOTOR

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forebrain

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above midbrain
-associated with complex perceptual, cognitive, and behavior processes
-associated with emotion and memory
-has greatest influence on human behavior

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limbic system

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group of neural structures primarily associated with emotion and memory
-aggression, fear, pleasure, and pain all associated with limbic system

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cerebral cortex

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outer covering of the cerebral hemispheres

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phelogeny

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evolutionary development in humans

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medulla oblongata

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lower brain structure responsible for regulating vital functions (e.g. breathing, heart rate, blood pressure)

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pons varolii

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lies above medulla oblongata
-contains sensory and motor tracts between the cortex and the medulla

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cerebellum

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at the top of the hindbrain
-mushrooms out of pons varolii
-helps maintain posture, balance
-coordinates body movements

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reticular formation

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extends from hindbrain into midbrain
-composed of intricate network of nerve fibers
-primarily regulates arousal and alertness (sleeping and waking)
AROUSAL, ALERTNESS, ATTENTION

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parts of the hindbrain

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Cerebellum
Medulla Oblongata
Reticular Formation

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superior colliculus

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located in midbrain
receives visual sensory input
SUPERIOR--SEEING

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inferior colliculus

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located in midbrain
-receives auditory sensory info
-plays a role in reflexive reactions to sudden noises

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parts of the midbrain

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superior colliculus
inferior colliculus

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thalamus

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located in forebrain
-important relay station for sensory information, including for all senses except smell
-receives and sorts incoming sensory impulses, then transmits them to appropriate areas of cerebral cortex
THALAMUS=WAY-STATION

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hypothalamus

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-subdivided into lateral hypothalamus, ventromedial hypothalamus, and anterior hypothalamus
-serves homeostatic functions
-key player in emotional experience during high arousal states (e.g. aggression, sexual behavior)
-also helps control some endocrine functions and the autonomic nervous system

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homeostatic functions of the hypothalamus

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self-regulatory processes that maintain a stable equilibrium within the body
-receptors within hypothalamus regulate metabolism, temperature, and water balance

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osmoregulation

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maintenance of water balance in the body
-performed osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus

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drive functions of the hypothalamus

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hunger, thirst, sexual behavior

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lateral hypothalamus

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HUNGER CENTER
LH=Lack of Hunger
-special receptors thought to detect when body needs more food or fluids (when to begin eating/drinking)
-also plays role in fighting/rage behaviors

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aphagia

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lack of hunger and thirst caused by lesioning the lateral hypothalamus

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ventromedial hypothalamus

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SATIETY CENTER
VH=Very Hungry
-lesions of ventromedial hypothalamus generally lead to obesity

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hyperphagia

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excessive eating caused by lesioning of the hypothalamus

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sham rage

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seen in experiment in early 1920s when cerebral cortex of cat was removed by hypothalamus left intact
-random rage not necessarily directed at source of provocation
-indicates that cortex inhibits random aggressive/rageful behavior

-when both cerebral cortex and hypothalamus removed, cats had difficulty defending themselves against threats to survival and had little control over defensive/aggressive behavior
-problems coordinating and organizing emotional responses

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anterior hypothalamus

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-important to sexual behavior
-electrical stimulation leads to increase in aggressive sexual behavior
-damage can cause permanent inhibition of sexual activity
ANTERIOR=lesioning can lead to ASEXUALITY

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basal ganglia

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-group of structures in the middle of the brain
-coordinates muscle movement as it receives information from the cortex and relays information via the extrapyramidal motor system to the brain and spinal cord
-basal ganglia may also play role in schizophrenia

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extrapyramidal motor system

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gathers information about body position and carries this information to the brain and spinal cord
-helps make movements smooth and posture steady

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primary components of the limbic system

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septum, amygdala, hippocampus
-also includes portions of hypothalamus and cortex

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ventricles

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fluid-filled cavities in the middle of the brain
-link up with the spinal canal that runs down the middle of the spinal cord
-both filled with cerebrospinal fluid
-abnormally enlarged ventricles have been linked to symptoms similar to those seen in schizophrenia (social withdrawal, flat affect, catatonic states)

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septum

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one of the primary pleasure centers in the brain
-James Olds and Peter Milner discovered septum is pleasure center using research with rats in 1950s
-septum also acts to inhibit aggression

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septal rage

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when septum damaged, aggressive behavior becomes uninhibited, resulting in aggressive behavior

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amygdala

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structure that plays important role in defensive and aggressive behavior
-dual effect on behavior
-lesioning results in docility and hypersexuality
NATALIE PORTMAN AS QUEEN AMYDALA=DOCILE BUT HIGHLY SEXED

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Kluver-Bucy syndrome

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changes in animals that resulted from bilateral removal of the amygdala

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hippocampus

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vital to learning and memory processes
-lesions produce anterograde amnesia

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anterograde amnesia

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amnesia characterized by an inability to create new long-term memories
-memory for events before trauma occurred is intact

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retrograde amnesia

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loss of memory for events from before trauma occurred
-able to create new long-term memories

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H.M.

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parts of temporal lobe including amygdala and hippocampus removed in order to control epileptic seizures
-caused anterograde amnesia
-Brenda Milner described HM's memory problems in detail

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cerebral cortex

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sometimes also called the neocortex
-has numerous bumps and folds called convolutions
-has two hemispheres and four lobes

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two regions of the frontal lobe

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prefrontal lobes (prefrontal cortex)
motor cortex

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prefrontal cortex

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serves an executive function
-governs and integrates numerous cognitive and behavioral processes
-good example of association area

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association area

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combines input from diverse brain regions
e.g. prefrontal cortex

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projection area

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receive incoming sensory information or send out motor-impulse commands
-e.g. visual cortex-receives visual input from retina
motor cortex-sends out motor commands to muscles

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prefrontal lobotomies

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used to treat schizophrenia
-scalpel inserted through hole in the skull and used to disconnect the frontal lobe from the limbic system and the hypothalamus (both associated with mood, emotion)

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motor cortex

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initiates voluntary motor movements by sending neural impulses down the spinal cord toward the muscles
-considered projection area in the brain

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neurons in the motor cortex

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-arranged systematically according to the parts of the body to which they are connected
-because certain sets of muscles require more motor control than others, they take up more space in the motor cortex than you would expect given their relative size in the body

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Broca's area

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part of the frontal lobe
-vital for speech production
-usually only found in one, "dominant" hemisphere
-in most people, that is left hemisphere

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somatosensory cortex

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located in the parietal lobe
-involved in somatosensory information processing
-destination for all incoming sensory signals for touch, pressure, temperature, and pain
-very closely related to motor cortex

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sensorimotor cortex

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single unit of somatosensory and motor cortices

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central region of the parietal lobe

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-associated with spacial processing and manipulation
-makes it possible to orient oneself in 3D space, do spatial manipulation of block designs, and apply spatial-orientation skills (e.g. map reading)

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occipital lobes

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contain the visual cortex (aka striate cortex)
-also involved in learning, motor control

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temporal lobes

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involved in language reception and comprehension, memory processing, and emotion control

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Wernike's area

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area of temporal lobe vital for language comprehension

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auditory cortex

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located in temporal lobes

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contralateral communication

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when one side of the brain communicates with the opposite side of the body

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ipsilateral communication

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when one side of the brain communicates with the same side of the body

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"dominant" LEFT hemisphere

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usually located opposite to the hand used for writing
-left hemisphere is dominant for approximately 97 percent of people
-visual system=letters, words
-auditory system=language-related sounds
-language=speech, reading, writing, arithmetic
-movement=complex voluntary movement

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"non-dominant" RIGHT hemisphere

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-visual system=faces
-auditory system=music
-language=emotions
-spatial processes=geometry, sense of direction

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Roger Sperry and Michael Gazzaniga

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studied effects of severing corpus callosum

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parts of a neuron

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-cell body (soma)
-dendrites
-axon
-terminal buttons

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cell body (soma)

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-contains nucleus of cell
-neuron's energy center

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dendrites

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branch out from cell body to receive incoming information from other neurons via post-synaptic receptors
-external stimulation of dendrites can lead neuron to generate electrical impulses ("fire")