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157 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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what are the 3 major gasses in atm?
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nitrogen, oxygen, and co2
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what is pressing on the earth all the time? What is the pressure of it?
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a column of air that is 760 mmhg
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what % and how much barometric pressure is N2 in atm?
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78.6, 590 mmhg
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what % and how much b.p. is O2 in atm?
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20.9, 159 mmhg
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what % and how much b.p. is CO2 in atm?In alveoli?
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atm - .04, 0.3 mmhg
alv - 6.2%, 47 mmhg |
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what % and how much barometric pressure is H2O in atm?
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.46 3.7 mmhg
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what % and how much barometric pressure is N2 in alveoli?
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74.9, 569 mmhg
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what % and how much barometric pressure is O2 in alveoli?
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13.7, 104 mmhg
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what % and how much barometric pressure is CO2 in alveoli
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5.2, 40 mmhg
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what % and how much barometric pressure is H2O in alveoli?
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6.2, 47 mmhg
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are there other gasses in this big column of pressure?
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yes, but mostly N2, O2 and Co2.
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how high is the 760 mmhg column of air pressing on the earth?
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150 miles
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what is partial pressure?
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Partial Pressure is the pressure of a single gas in the mixture as if that gas alone occupied the container.
since there is an enormous amount of space between the gas molecules within the mixture, they do not have any influence on the motion of other gas molecules. therefore the pressure of a gas sample is the same whether it was the only gas in the container or if it were among other gases. |
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what is the formula for calculating partial pressure (PP)?
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Barometric pressure X % of gas present
------------------------------- 100 |
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how can you, as a general rule, calculate the PP of any gas?
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multiply the barometric pressure by the percentage of the gas present, and the divide by 100.
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what is PP of N2 at sea level?
sea level bp760 mmhg atm at s l is 78.6 % N2 |
597.3 mmhg
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what is the PP of O2 at sea level?
sea level BP is 760 mmhg atm at s l is 20.9% O2 |
158.84
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what 2 things do you need to calculate the PP of any gas?
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1. the % of the gas in that atm
2. the BP of that atm (in mmhg) |
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explain how you add atm's to a diver when he goes deeper:
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every 10 meters deeper = 1 more atm
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how many atm of pressure is a diver under at 80m?
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9 atm
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what would be an example of BP up on a mountain?
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500 mmhg
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Man is up on a mountain. BP is 500 mmhg. % of O2 is 21%. What is his PO2?
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105 mmhg
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why does the man on the mountain have a lower BP?
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because he has less column of air pressing down on him.
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If a diver is 10 m under water and is breathing 21% O2, what will his PO2 be?
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319.2
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why do mountainclimbers bring O2 when they go really high?
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because where they are going has a lower BP and if they do not supplement, their PO2 will fall as they get higher
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why of PP so important for anesthesia?
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because we need to undertand that pts can be subject to different atm and a pt could have hypoxemia or O2 toxicity
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test ?: diver is at 80 m, 5% O2. what is his PP O2?
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342
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what is formula for PP again?
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BP (in mmhg) X % of that gas present
--------------------- 100 |
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in terms of transport, why is PP so important?
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because it affects the direction of the diffusion of the gasses.
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Consider the following PP of the gasses and tell which way the gas is going across the CM? <> = CM
a. 150 <> 175 b. 98 <> 15 c. 30 <> 72 |
a. <---
b. ---> C. <--- |
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what is PP of N2 at sea level?
sea level bp760 mmhg atm at s l is 78.6 % N2 |
597.3 mmhg
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what is the PP of O2 at sea level?
sea level BP is 760 mmhg atm at s l is 20.9% O2 |
158.84
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what 2 things do you need to calculate the PP of any gas?
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1. the % of the gas in that atm
2. the BP of that atm (in mmhg) |
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explain how you add atm's to a diver when he goes deeper:
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10 meters = 1 more atm
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how many atm of pressure is a diver under at 80m?
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9 atm
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what would be an example of BP up on a mountain?
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500 mmhg
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Man is up on a mountain. BP is 500 mmhg. % of O2 is 21%. What is his PO2?
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105 mmhg
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why does the man on the mountain have a lower BP?
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because he has less column of air pressing down on him.
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If a diver is 10 m under water and is breathing 21% O2, what will his PO2 be?
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319.2
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why do mountainclimbers bring O2 when they go really high?
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because where they are going has a lower BP and if they do not supplement, their PO2 will fall as they get higher
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why of PP so important for anesthesia?
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because we need to undertand that pts can be subject to different atm and a pt could have hypoxemia or O2 toxicity
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test ?: diver is at 80 m, 5% O2. what is his PP O2?
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342
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what is formula for PP again?
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BP (in mmhg) X % of that gas present
------------------------- 100 |
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in terms of transport, why is PP so important?
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because it affects the direction of the diffusion of the gasses.
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Consider the following PP of the gasses and tell which was the gas is going across the CM?
<> = CM a. 150 <> 175 b. 98 <> 15 c. 30 <> 72 |
a. <---
b. ---> C. <--- |
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what is PP measured in?
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mmhg
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what is PO2 in atm?
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159
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what is PO2 in art circ?
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102
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what is PO2 in tissue?
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40
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what is PO2 in alveoli?
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104
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explain how O2 diffuses from alveoli through body:
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it goes from alv (104) to venous blood in the alveolar capp (which eventually, increasing in O2 conc, lead to the art circulation.)
In the micro circulation, it diffuses from 102 to 40, until the micro circulation PO2 (on the venous end) is the same as the tissues. |
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what isthe difference between PO2 of tissues and venous circ?
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nothing
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explain how Co2 gets around and exits the body
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CO2 diffuses from the tissues (47) to the micro circulation (40.) It goes into the venous blood until and leaves the body by diffusing through the alveolar cappilaries (47-40.)
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what is the difference between PCO2 of tissue and venous system?
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nothing. Diffusion continues in the micro circulation until both are even.
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explain the concept of "dead space"
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Not all the air we breathe in is able to be used for the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide.
About a third of every resting breath is exhaled exactly as it came into the body. Because of dead space, taking deep breaths more slowly (e.g. ten 500 mL breaths per minute) is more effective than taking shallow breaths quickly (e.g. twenty 250 mL breaths per minute). Although the amount of gas per minute is the same (5 L/min), a large proportion of the shallow breaths is dead space, and does not allow oxygen to get into the blood. Dead space can be enlarged (and better envisaged) by breathing into a long tube. Even though one end of the tube is open to the air, when one inhales, it is mostly the carbon dioxide from expiration. Using a snorkel increases a diver's dead space in the airways. |
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what is anatomical dead space?
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Anatomical dead space is the gas in the conducting areas of the respiratory system, such as the mouth and trachea, where the air doesn't come to the alveoli of the lungs
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what does the oxygen cascade describe
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the declining oxygen PP from atmosphere to mitochondria.
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what is PO2 of cell?
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10
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what is PO2 of mitochondria?
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.1
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how much O2 do cells need to operate?
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Not much.
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what is a function of the oxygen cascade for the body?
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as a buffering device and a protective mechanism
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when you get to tissue level of O2 cascade, does PO2 of compartments decrease drastically?
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No
It drops less the lower you go. |
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what organ is the ultimate target of anesthesia?
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the brain
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what will physics II be mostly related to?
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solubility of gases.
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what is membrane potential?
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the electrical potential difference (voltage) across a cell's plasma membrane.
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what part does m p have to do with communication for cells?
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It is a morse code by which cells communicate. The do so by changing m p
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what can a change in m p be iterpreted as in information?
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one bite of information, like in a binary system
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define resting membrabe potential:
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it is the membrane potential that would be maintained if no action potentials are initiated.
it is basicallythe realative difference in negative charges when the cell is at rest |
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what is the difference in charge between the inside and outside of the cell? give a numeric example:
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inside is always more negatively charged.
ex: inside -90 outside -60 |
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what 4 ions participate in m p?
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Na+, K+, cl- and protein-.
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what happens in a thin CM?
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oppisite charges accumulate there.
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how big a % of the total ions are participating in MP hang out by the cell membrabe?
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a small fraction
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How do cells communicate with MP?
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by changing MP
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of the 4 ions involved in MP, which ones are most responsible for the majority of the negative charge inside the cell?
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the positive ones - Na+ and K+
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who did scientists think at first were the culprits in causing MP?
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the negative ones - cl- and protein-as it turns out, they only had a minor role.
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how can ions with a + chg create a - charge inside the cell?
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Na K ATPase pumps actively transport ions. They are responsible for the neg charge inside
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what do the conentrations of Na and K need to be inside and out to maintain resting MP and homeostasis?
(no numbers, just explain.) |
low concentration of sodium ions and high levels of potassium ions within the cell
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what are the 2 types of transport that are responsible for MP?
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unequal ion transport
soduim potassium pump |
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what % of MP is Na K pump responsible for?
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20
combined with U I T it accounts for 100% M P |
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what % is unequal ion transport responsible for?
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80
Combined with Na K pump accounts for 100% |
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in Na K pump, explain the ratio of pumping going on:
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In order to keep the appropriate concentrations, the sodium-potassium pump pumps sodium out and potassium in through active transport.
3 Na are pumped out (exchanged) for every 2 K pumped into the cell |
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without the Na K pumps, what would happen with ion diffusion?
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everything would diffuse by ficks. Na outside the cell (150 mM conentration) would diffuse inside and K inside the cell (150mM concentration) would diffuse toward the outside.
This would be incompatible with life. Ficks alone is a problem, so the pump corrects it. |
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list the ion concentrations for Na, K and A- inside the cell:
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Na 15
K 150 A- 65 |
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list the concentrat for Na, K and A- ourside the cell:
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Na 150
K 5 A- 0 |
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what percent of ion transport is leakage?
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80
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what percent ion transport is pumps?
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20
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do neurons have the same components as other cells?
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yes. they have a mitochondria, cw and nucleus. It is a specialized cell.
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what are the parts of a neuron, going from L to R?
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dendrites (across a synapse from the previous neuron), cell body, axon, axon terminals (which end at the synapse connecting to the next cell body.)
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what is in the cell body of a neuron?
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nucleus and nissl bodies.
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what is in the dendrites?
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the receptive area
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what comprises the axon?
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axon hillock and axon collaterals
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what is the function of the axon?
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conduction of impulses from the cell body
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what is another weird name for the cell body?
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the perikaryon
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what is at the end of the axon?
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the axon terminals
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whatis past the axon terminals?
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the next synapse
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whatis considered a sacred place for neurons? why?
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the synapse. action potential passes here. Plus, drugs work here too.
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in what form does information pass along axon terminal?
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in the form of an action potential
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practice:
drawa neuron. include: |
prior AT -> synapse -> dendrites -> cell body -> axon -> axon terminals -> next synapse -> dendrites of next neuron
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explain one neuron communicating to other neurons
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it speaks to thousands of other neurons, all at once. It is like teacher and room full of students yelling back at each other.
This happens with perfect accuracy. |
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which way does the A P travel down the neuron
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from body to axon terminals
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what exception is there to the direction of travel in the axon?
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viruses like herpes and rabies can travel the other way.
Retrograde transmission of virus from a peripheral site to the central nervous system occurs along a nerve axon. This happes within the axon, in the reverse direction, via the cytoplasm (from peripheral NS to central NS. |
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TERRIBLY IMPORTANT:
what is an action potential? |
it is a "spike" of electrical discharge that travels along the membrane of a cell.
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what role do action potentials play in life?
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Action potentials are an essential feature of animal life, rapidly carrying information within and between tissues.
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in terms of speech, what would you compare resting AP to?
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quiet
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in terms of speech, what would you compare action potential to?
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talking
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whatare the 2 major phases in A P?
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depolarization and repolarization
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in A P, what happens in depolarization?
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increase in soduim permiability, opening of Na channels
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in A P what happens in repolarization?
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inrease in K permiability, opening of K chanels
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what number or communication system could you compare A P to?
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binary system, or morse code
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how is all information in an organism transmitted?
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through the A P system
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exlain the "wall" between what we know and don't know about A P:
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we know that:
AP controls everything we do. The physiology of AP we don't know about: thoughts nightmares religion |
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can the wall between AP and what we don't know be seperated?
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no
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how does AP compare to the alphabet?
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it is one letter in the whole alphabet
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what is happeningin the picture (my lecture notes) on page 16 when a stimulus hits the cell membrane?
(See picture 10.) |
stimulus intitales AP which travels along until it hits Na channel.
Na channel opens up, Na floods in. + charges flood in to the cell. Inside starts getting +. (this is depolarization.) We need to restore the charge. To restore the charge, K channel opens up, there is a large outward movement of potassium ions driven by the potassium concentration gradient and initially favored by the positive-inside electrical gradient. As potassium ions diffuse out, this movement of positive charge causes a reversal of membrane potential to negative-inside and repolarization of the neuron back towards the large negative-inside resting potential |
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again, what happens in depolarization?
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stimulus intitales AP which travels along until it hits Na channel.
Na channel opens up, Na floods in. + charges flood in to the cell. Inside starts getting +. (this is depolarization.) We need to restore the charge. |
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again, what happens in repolarization?
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To restore the charge, K channel opens up, there is a large outward movement of potassium ions driven by the potassium concentration gradient and initially favored by the positive-inside electrical gradient. As potassium ions diffuse out, this movement of positive charge causes a reversal of membrane potential to negative-inside and repolarization of the neuron back towards the large negative-inside resting potential
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what is a simple way to remember repolarization?
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channel opens
outward moement of K and reversal of MP to - inside neuron ends up back at -inside resting potential |
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what is threshold?
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the minimum amt of stimulus needed to initiate an AP.
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give an example of threshold with speech, and add some coresponding charges:
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wisper: -90, not enough
talking: -70, not enough talking loud: -60, not enough yelling: -50, success |
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what happens at -50 when threshold is reached?
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depolarization, with Na rushing into the cell.
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to have a meaningful AP, what do you need?
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a meaningful, adequate stimulus
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what is the "all or none law?"
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rule that the strength in which a nerve or muscle fiber responds to a stimulus is not dependent on the strength of the stimulus.
If the stimulus is any strength above threshold, the nerve or muscle fiber will either respond or not respond. |
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what is refractory period? what are the 2 types of RP?
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a period durin which you cannot create an AP.
absolute realative |
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can we cause an AP during absolute refractory period?
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no
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can we cause an AP during realative RP?
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sometimes
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where does realative RP occur on the AP line?
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in between AP's, right after absolute.
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what is AP propagation?
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the APs moving along the neurons
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what is another name for "self propagating" effect?
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domino effect
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what are the 2 types of propagation?
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local currents
saltatory currents |
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in which type of neurons do local currents occur (mylenated vs unmylenated?)
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unmylenated
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what are the steps of local current propagation?
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Na rushes in
inside of CM goes from -'s to +'s the +'s create local currents *clarify* |
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what is the second way AP's propagate?
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Saltatory conduction
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explain saltatory conduction:
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it is process by which an action potential appears to jump along the length of an axon, being regenerated only at uninsulated segments (the nodes of Ranvier).
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what type of axons does salatory conduction happen in (M vs un)
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mylenated
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what does saltatory conduction do re: speed and size?
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increases nerve conduction velocity without having to dramatically increase axon diameter.
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which is faster, local currents or saltatory?
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saltatory
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where are the nodes of raniere and what is their importance?
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they are in between the mylen.
change in potential occurs here, making the AP go faster. |
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what does saltatory conduction do for living things re nerve size?
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it increases nerve conduction velocity without having to dramatically increase axon diameter. Nerves would be too big for our bodies without it.
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what does the refractory period provide in AP propagation?
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unidirectional propagation
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where does refractory period occur in the neuron?
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from the body to the axon terminals
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what does lidocaine do?
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blocks na channels, thus eliminating sensory nerves
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how does anesthesia act on the neuron?
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like lido, but it does so by interfering with a structure on the CM.
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what is the nervous system divided up into (anatomically?)
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CNS
PNS |
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how many and what types of CN are in the PNS?
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31 CN
31 SN |
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how is the nervous system divided up physiologically?
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CNS
PNS (somatic and autonomic) and then autonomic (sympathetic and parasympathetic) |
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what is the formula for NERNST EQUATION?
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E=61 log Co/Ci
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what is E in NERNST EQUATION?
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Equilibrium potential in mV
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what is 61 in NERST EQUATION?
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61= Constant (incorporates the universal gas constant(R), absolute temperature (T), ion valency (z) an electrical constant (Faradey) (F)
61= RT/zF |
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what is co in NERST equation?
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Co= Ion concentration outside the cell (mM/L)
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what is ci in NERST equation?
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Ci= Ion concentration inside the cell (mM/L)
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what are group A axons? Give:
name conduction velocity size |
GROUP A: SENSORY and MOTOR FIBER
-15-130m/s 5-20 micrometers |
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what are group B axons? Give:
name conduction velocity size |
GROUP B:
ANS FIBERS -3-15m/s 1-3 micrometers |
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what are group C axons? Give:
name conduction velocity size |
GROUP C: UNMYELINATED
-1m/s 1-3 micrometers |
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describe action potential registration
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Nerves can be easily stimulated or depressed by using chemical substances, mechanical stimulation, electrical stimulation and temperature. Nerves consist of a big number of single neurons. Thus, the registered action potential (compound action potential) is essentially a combination of single action potentials. Typical equipment to conduct nerve physiology may include the following: electrical stimulator, oscilloscope and a bio-amplifier.
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discuss inhibiting a nerve impulse
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Different physical factors (pressure, temperature) and chemical agents (general anesthetics, local anesthetics, and alcohol) can inhibit the ability of the neuron to propagate action potential.
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what are the pictures we may need to draw for essay questions in this segment?
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1. man at sea level, on mountain and under water
2. direction of movement of gases across a membrane wih different PP's on each side 3. pictire of alveolis, with curculation underneath, one for PO2 and one for PCO2 4. graph for oxygen cascade 5. circle with -90 insode and -60 out (resting mem pot) 6. picture ofCM with 2 things going on: Ficks and Na K ATPase pumps 7. Neuron. Label all areas. 8. neuron with AP going along it 9. graph with resting MP, depolarizat, and repolarizat 10. graph with threshold (several inadequate stimulus, then success.) 11. picture of refractory periods, both 12. pictures of propagation, both local currents and saltatory 13. CNS divided 4. |
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acronyms for essay questions:
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will write when essay questions are available
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