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153 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Theory
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Hypothesis supported by evidence
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Hypothesis
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an explanation that is based on observations or data that we have gathered
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How can a hypothesis be elevated to a theory?
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○ Can be elevated to a theory as it seems more valid with evidence
○ Has to pass a number of rigorous tests |
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The Big Bang
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An explanation for the formation of the universe
○ Best existing theory |
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When does a theory become a law?
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A theory becomes law when it cannot be disproven
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0 seconds
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The Big Bang
Appearance of space, time, and energy |
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10^-43 seconds
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3x10^-35 Meters - radius of universe
Temperature (T) = 10^31K Gravitational energy separates out |
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10^-33 - 10^-32 seconds
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(inflation period)
Radius 3x10^-27 = 0.1 M Expanding farther than the speed of light 10^67 (possibly) other universes Temperature 10^27K - 10^22K |
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10^-6 seconds
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Radius = 300M
T=3x10^12K 1. Gravity 2. Strong Force (holds nuclei together) 3. Electroweak force a. Protons b. Neutrons c. electrons |
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3 seconds
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Nuclei of simple elements
- hydrogen - Helium - Lithium Radius = 3x10^4M T=4x10^9K |
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300,000 years
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Radius = 6.6x10^21M
T=3000K - We can start many neutral atoms - Electrons join nuclei |
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300 Million years
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- Little clumps of matter forming
- Nuclear fusion - occurs in the center of stars and creates higher elements (nucleosynthesis) - Heat created by nuclear fusion (stars) - Supernovas create heavier elements ○ Stars up to Fe ○ Others - supernovas - Supernovas also distribute all the elements - star has to explode before it gives up all its elements |
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Nuclear fusion
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occurs in the center of stars and creates higher elements (nucleosynthesis)
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Supernovas
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create heavier elements
above Fe |
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What formed our solar system?
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slightly more dense patches of elements
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10 million years after big bang
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○ Material started to compact
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nebulas
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Clouds made of elements
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In the center of the solar system...
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is the sun, which was at the center of the acccretionary disk and had the highest pressure/temperature
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how did planets form within the nebula?
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Planets form from a clump in solar nebula as particles ran together
- planetisimals |
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Planetisimals
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small clumps that turn into planets
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How big must a clump of matter be to be considered a planetesimal?
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greater than 1 KM in diameter
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The Rocky planets
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The "rocky planets" are the innermost +asteroid belt (still a dusty ring)
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The Gaseous planets
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Jupiter and BEYOND!
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How did the inner/outer planet divide form?
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Inner planets are made of compounds with high melting temperature, low melting temps got blown out to the cooler parts of the disk where they helped form planets
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How did the moon form?
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The moon formed when a mars-sized object struck the earth blowing out a chunk
4.5 BYA |
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4.5 BYA
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Earth started to segregate layers
§ Denser layers sank § Hot layer was mobile to allow sinking and rising the moon was formed |
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What layer does the moon have the same composition of?
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the earth's mantle
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Composition of the Core
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Iron and nickle
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Why is the core both solid and liquid?
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the inner core is solid because the particles are prevented from moving because of pressure
the outer core is extremely hot and thus liquid. It has less pressure so the particles can move freely |
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How do we know what the core is made of?
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§ Meteorites substances help us determine what core is made of
□ Waves and magnetic field also helps - we knew what the overall composition of the earth should be and Iron fit |
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temperature of the core
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~ 6000 degrees Celsius
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The Mantle
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iron magnesium, silicon, oxygen - SILICATES
§ 2900 KM |
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the Crust
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potassium, sodium, calcium, aluminum, SILICATES
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What is the most common compound that makes up the crust and mantle?
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silicates
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Heat
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atoms moving around more/less
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Heat transfer flow
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hot to cold
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Conduction
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transfer energy through the material
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Convection
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"fan" that cycles heat
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Radiation
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transfers heat through a vacuum but cannot penetrate opaque materials
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what shapes the earth's evolution?
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heat
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Rocks and heat
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rock is poor at conducting heat
- therefore we know that is not the only heating mechanism of the earth |
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What creates a HUGE portion of the earth's heat?
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Much heat in the earth is caused by the decay of many naturally occurring radioactive materials
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Mantle flow
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• The mantle can flow because its plasticity
○ Moves centimeters a year § Enough to dissipate heat CONVECTION |
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Where does crust formation occur?
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mid-ocean ridges, divergent plate boundaries
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Subduction
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Subduction is where the lava is circulating back down
- convergent plate boundaries |
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Plate tectonics is a manifestation of ____________
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convection
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What does the magnetic field depend on?
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Plate tectonics...Convection of molten iron within the outer liquid core
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth%27s_magnetic_field |
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What does the magnetic field protect us from?
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radiation
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Alfred Wegner
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1900's developed theory of plate tectonics
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Paradigm
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explains several functions of observable and non observable world
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Thomas Kuhn
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philosopher of science
-structure of scientific revolutions |
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Structure of a Scientific Revolution
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1. Normal science period
i. Operating under existing paradigm 2. Crisis period i. People start making observations that are not explained by the existing paradigm ii. Inconsistencies, inaccuracies, new unsolved problems 3. Revolution - development of new paradigm 4. Acceptance of new paradigm |
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Normal period of plate tectonics
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i. Pre -plate tectonics
ii. Uniformitarianism iii. 1800-1900's |
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Time frams of Crisis Period of plate tectonics
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i. 1940's-1950's
ii. WWII ships started using sonar i. Mapped out ocean floor |
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Harry Hess
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- 1962 Hess wrote "the History of the Ocean Basins"
- captain on a ship with magnetometer during WWII |
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Magnetometer
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- Magnetometors helped see (zebra like) patterns on the ocean floor
- Rocks coming up changed as the polarity of the earth changes ii. Topography and magnetic map |
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What other evidence helped plate tectonics theory develop?
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- Seismography showed earthquakes in thin lines
- Oceanic crust much younger than continental |
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What did Hess' "The History of Ocean Basins" suggest?
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i. New oceanic crust is forming at MOR
ii. Spreading laterally away iii. Earthquakes occurring at MOR iv. Changes in polarity 1) Occurs every 500-700KA v. Convection in outer core |
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The revolution of Plate Tectonics
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• Sea floor spreading : proof
○ Magnetic anomalies mimic layered lava flows ○ Normal polarity creates strong magnetic connection ○ Only when GPS was launched could we see plates actually moving |
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Magnetic anomalies
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mimicked lava flows, normal polarity creates strong magnetic connection
sea floor spreading was occuring |
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Tuzo Wilson
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If Hess is right earthquakes should move oppositely to what scientists originally believed
- made important claims about Plate tectonics |
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By the _____ most people accepted plate tectonics
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the 1970's
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Divergent Plate Boundaries
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Plates Spread apart
Hot new crust is created |
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What features are typical of Divergent plate boundaries?
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Rift valleys and MOR
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Convergent Plate boundaries
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Plates come together
The lithosphere plates sink into the mantle - subduction |
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What is more dense? Continental lithosphere or oceanic lithosphere?
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oceanic lithosphere
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What happens as oceanic lithosphere sinks into the mantle?
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Mineral changes occur as basalt is turned into eclogite...this creates a drag and earthquakes occur
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We are not sure what happens below ______
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670 KM
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Older oceanic goes _____ younger
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Under
Older is colder - more dense |
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What happens when asthenosphere comes into contact with water?
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○ When water comes in contact with asthenosphere it partially melts rock
§ Molten rock (magma produced) |
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Asthenosphere + water has ___ melting temperature
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Low melting temperature
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Convergent boundaries are lined by
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volcanoes
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Subduction zones can consume wide areas which leads to....
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continental collisions
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Transform plate boundaries
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plates slip past one another
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Where are transform boundaries seen?
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Where MOR is segmented shows transform boundaries
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What is typical of transform boundaries?
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earthquakes
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are transform boundaries as volcanic as divergent and convergent boundaries?
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NO!
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Back Arc Spreading
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○ Subducted lithosphere curves as it goes down
○ Start to get divergents in the back ○ Falling slab sucks plate - causes divergent action |
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Hot spots
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○ Volcanoes that occur away from the plate boundaries
○ Plates moving over plumes to release/block magma - Looking at trails gives us a look at how plates are moving |
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Lithosphere
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Crust and upper part of the mantle
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What are the two types of Lithosphere?
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Continental and Oceanic
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Contiental Lithosphere
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- 150 Km thic
□ More buoyant than oceanic lithosphere, thicker, sits higher - Topography = buoyancy |
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Asthenosphere
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Mantle below Lithosphere
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mesosphere
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Layer below asthenosphere, moslty the lower part of the mantle
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order of rigidity of the "shperes"
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Lithosphere, mesosphere, asthenosphere
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The amount of liquid in the mantle is very ____
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small
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More about back arc basins
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Back arc basins cause new oceans/sea - red sea
Caused by pulling of eclogite |
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The nucleus contains ______ and ______
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protons and neutrons
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Where are the electrons?
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the electrons surround the nucleus
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Atomic mass
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Protons and neutrons
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Atomic number
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number of protons
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Isotopes
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• Isotopes - atoms with different # of neutrons
○ Decimals account for isotopes on the periodic table ○ Isotopes added up and divided proportionally gives us atomic mass |
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What atomic measurement (mass/number) changes when you have an isotope?
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the atomic Mass changes
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What are ions?
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charged atoms
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Cations
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positively charged atoms
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Anions
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negatively charged atoms
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complex anions
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molecules where the atoms are so lightly bound that the molecule behaves as its own anion
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Carbonate anion
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(CO3)^-2
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Sulfate anion
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(SO4)^-2
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Silicate anion
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(SiO4) ^-4
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What are the top 4 elements in the whole earth?
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Fe, O, SI, Mg
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What are the top 4 elements in the Crust?
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O, Si, Al, Fe
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We classify rocks based on ________ , __________ and ____________
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Complex anions, simpler anions (O-2), native elements (Ag, Au)
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Mineral
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A mineral is an inorganic, naturally occurring, crystalline, solid. With a specific chemical composition
- have to be able to write a formula |
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What do silicates form?
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Silicates form tetrahedra
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What are the tetrahedra bound by?
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Cations
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what are the common cations?
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Fe, Mg, Ca, Al, Na, K - Cations
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Independent/isolated Tetrahedral structure
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Si : O - 1:4
(Mg, Fe)2 Si04 (Olivine) - Some olivine has Fe instead of Mg |
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Twin tetrahedral structure
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Si : O - 2:7
Lawsonite |
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Ring Silicate
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Si:O - 6:18
Beryl |
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Single Chain Structure
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Si : O - 1:3
Pyroxene - (Mg, Fe) SiO3 |
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Double Chain
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Si : O - 4:11
Amphibole - Ca2(Mg,Fe)5 Si8 O22 (OH)2 |
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Sheet Silicate
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Si : O - 2:5
- K Al2 (Si3 Al) O10 (OH)2 - Muscovite - Aluminum behaves as a silicon atom in this structure □ Noted by parentheses - A sheet of continuous silicates |
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Framework Silicates
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- Si : O - 1:2
- SiO2 - Quartz - feldspars |
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What is a larger SI:O ratio?
1:4 or 1:2? |
1:2
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Mafic
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Mg, Fe
- Olivine, Pyroxene, Amphibole, biotite Mica ○ More dense more typical of minerals found in oceanic crust - This is why oceanic crust is more dense ○ Typically darker |
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Felsic
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- Na, K, Ca, Al
○ Less dense - Feldspar, Quartz, Muscovite ○ Typically lighter in color |
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Carbonates
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- built of (CO3)-2
○ Many animal made materials ○ CaCO3 - Calcite |
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Sulfates
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○ (SO4)-2
○ CaSO4 * H2O - gypsum |
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Igneous rocks
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created by the cooling of magma
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Volcanoes
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the vent through which molten rock reaches the surface of the earth
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Magma
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Underground molten rock, produces intrusive or plutonic igneous rocks when cooled
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Lava
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Above the ground - Produces extrusive or volcanic rocks when cooled
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Intrusive rocks have ______ crystals and extrusive rocks have ________ crystals
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intrusive have large crystals
extrusive have small crystals |
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Igneous Texture
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describes size and arrangement of crystals
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Glassy
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Extrusive, cooled extremely quickly
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Aphanitic
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Very fine grained, extrusive
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Phaneritic
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Larger crystals (plutonic)
intrusive |
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Porphyritic
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Large crystals surrounded by small crystals
- Magma starts to cool underground and then magma erupts and it cools much more quickly - 2 stage cooling |
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Lava pillows
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liquid lava comes up and the outside freezes when it comes in contact with water outside
§ Cracks and blobs come out § Outer pillow usually glassy texture |
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Metamorphic
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Uses pressure and heat to change pre-existing rock
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Sedimentary
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Accumulation of Sediment, Biogenic
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3 Main Gases in Volcanoes
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• Sulfur Dioxide SO2
• Carbon Dioxide CO2 • Water Vapor H2O |
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Cooling Rate
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How fast heat is lost
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Basalt
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- Partially molten mantle (Fe, Mg) Silicates (Mafic)
○ Pyroxene, Olivine - flows easy peasy |
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Andesite
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- 1/2 way between Basalt and Rhyolite in composition (Intermediate)
○ Na Feldspar |
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Rhyolite
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- Partially moltern continental crust (Felsic)
○ Quartz, K Feldspar |
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Extrusive rock basalt
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basalt
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intrusive rock basalt
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Gabbro
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boundary type basalt
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divergent
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Extrusive rock andesite
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andesite
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intrusive rock andesite
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Diorite
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boundary type - andesite
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convergent
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Extrusive rock - Rhyolite
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Rhyolite
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Intrusive rock - rhyolite
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Granite
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boundary type - Rhyolite
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convergent
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Draw Bowen's reaction series
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OK!
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Highly viscous magma flows ______
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slowly
(low temperatures on Reaction Series) |
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Less Viscous Magma Flows ______
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quickly
(found at higher temperatures) |
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minerals on the same level of bowen's series are typically found
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together in minerals
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Shield volcanoes
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Basaltic magma
• Very broad and flat because the magma isn't very viscous • Very quiet eruptions • Extensive, thin sheets, Layers of magma |
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Strato Volcanoes
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Andesite magma
• Has viscosity of toothpaste • Sprays fragments of frozen magma ○ Tephra/ash from deposits • Builds steep sided volcanoes • Alternating layers of ash and lava • Much smaller than shield • Forms Calderas of about 2mi radius • Rebuild themselves with lava domes ○ Thick plug of andesitic lava |
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Caldera
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- Rhyolite
• So viscous that it has a hard time erupting • Need a lot of liquid rock to cause eruption • Really large eruptions • Evacuate magma chamber and causes caldera • After the caldera forms the volcano inflates again ○ Every 650,000 years |
