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112 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Scientific Method Steps
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1. Recognize Problem
2. Gather Evidence 3. Multiple Working Hypotheses 4. Test Hypotheses 5. Form Theory |
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Scientific Law
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Mathematical description of phenomenon
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3 Rock Types
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Pyrolucite - mineral
Belemite - biological Crinoid - biological |
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Greeks
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- Found phosphorus limestones full of coral fossils
- Believed oceans had to have been high or risen - 3 Philosophies: must be natural laws to govern universe, could be figured out in time, earth isn't stable |
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Romans
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- Elder Pliny (Roman admiral in navy) studied volcanoes
- Collapse followed by Dark Ages - Little contribution to science |
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Renaissance
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- Begins with Age of Exploration
- Leads to "true" Renaissance - Da Vinci found clam fossils on hill - Fossils were buried in mud, hardened, mud rose to top of mountain - Conrad Gesner: wondered what fossils were, published book |
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Problems In Understanding Fossils
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1A. Preservation: lack of geochemistry, shells made of things they aren't supposed to be, like pyrite
1B. How Fossils Got Inside Rocks 1C. How Fossils Got On Mountaintops 2. Exotic Creatures: didn't understand extinction 3. Biological Or Not |
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Hypotheses About Fossils
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1. Remains of once living creatures
2. Produced by "plastic forces" 3. Grew from seeds 4. Spontaneous generation 5. Just rocks 6. Devil's work |
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Enlightenment
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- 17th & 18th centuries
- Belief in natural laws - Superstitious - Belief in progress & perfectability - Egypt didn't change much - China preserved culture |
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Cultural Precursors Of Science
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1. Printing books: form of communication
2. Woodcut: used to illustrate 3. Copper Plate: sheet of copper used to make printing block 4. Scientific Journal: scientists described their research, published by Scientific Society |
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Royal Society
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- Formed 1660 by naturalists
- Lectures on research - Followed by publishing of Proceedings of Scientific Society - People could agree/disagree with it |
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Tongue Stones
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- Found by cutting up fish
- Best preserved specimens found living in remains of crinoids in Caribbean |
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Inductive Logic
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- Many logics create single principle
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1700
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- Fossils determined to be remains of once living creatures
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Johann Beringer
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- Dean of medicine at Werzburg
- Arrogant & dislikeable - Described fossils as "capricious fabrications of God" (idiotic theory) - Found fossil carvings - Published & sold out book - Found fossil that said "Good morning Beringer" - Publicly humiliated & sued |
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3 Tenets Of Christianity
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1A. World's very young: Bishop Ussher (1600s) decided earth was created by God Oct. 22, 4004 BC in evening
1B. John Lightwood: world was created 9 am Oct. 23, 4004 BC 2. World is perfect creation, unchanging, created for divine purposes, rejected geologic evidence for change 3. Noah's Flood: produced sequences of sedimentary rocks and fossils, hypothesis - buried remains of creatures killed (1600s) |
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Frictions Between Religion & Geology
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1.1600s & 1700s: extinction
- Christians troubled because God wouldn't bring about extinction - 1700s: longer list of extinct animals, dug up mastodons, mastodons proved extinction, Jefferson sent Lewis & Clark to explore, first displayed 1802 from Hudson Valley 2. Noah's Flood: sedimentary rocks too thick to be result of single event, no adequate source for saltwater, absent from rock record |
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Johann Lehmann
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- 1719-1767
- Classified rocks as pre-deluge, deluge, post deluge |
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Giovani Arduino
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- Oldest rocks: primary
- Middle rocks: secondary - Youngest rocks: tertiary - Adirondacks |
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Abraham Gotlob Werner
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-1719-1781
- Intolerant of opposition - Grand Unification Theory - Neptunism: worldwide ocean flooded & sea levels gradually dropped, forming rocks (crystalline) |
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Transitional Time
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- Primary: deformation occurring (tilting, folding)
- Secondary: sea producing different rocks, deformation ended |
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Alluvial
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- Sand & gravel in surface of rocks
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Opposition To Neptunism
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- 1790s
- Italy, France, Iceland: volcanic eruptions, volcano produced basalt from molten rock, not ocean but volcano -Plutonists |
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Uniformitarianism
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- James Hutton (1726-1797)
- Scottish Renaissance 1780s & 90s |
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James Hutton
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- Passion for rivers
- Discovered Rock Cycle - Studied in Susquehanna |
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Alfred Russell Wallace
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- Collected & sold specimens
- Went to Amazon Basin 1850s - Died from malaria - Had epiphany of evolution, sent notes to Darwin 1856 |
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Thomas Malthus
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- Too great a population, overcrowding in slums
- People fight over resources |
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Theory Of Evolution
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1. All individuals vary within same species
2. All species reproduce exponentially 3A. Survival of the fittest - Natural Selection 3B. World changes, species change |
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Thomas Huxley
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- Defended Darwin against Wilberforce (religious)
- Spring 1860 Oxford Debate |
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Objections To Evolution
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1. No linking forms between species
2. No linking forms between groups of organisms 3. No genetics (how did genes cause variation) |
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Gregor Mendel
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- Studied genetics 1900
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1900
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- Evolution no longer scientific issue
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Fundamentalist Views
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1. Virgin birth of Jesus
2. Physical death & resurrection 3. Jesus will return as savior 4. Bible without error |
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Problems With Carbon Dating
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1. Precision (age)
2. Preservation (if daughter drawn out, can't determine age) 3. Lab (procedure done improperly) |
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1830s
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- Geological Survey established
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James Hall
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- Never Fillable Ocean Hypothesis
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Half-Life
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- Time it takes for half of parent to turn into daughter
- Decay by half |
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Types Of Isotope Dates
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1. Uranium/lead (4.5 billion)
2. Potassium Argon (1.3 billion) 3. Rubidium Strontium (4.7 billion) |
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Carbon Dating
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1. Upper Atmosphere: cosmic waves bombard (n14 becomes c14)
2. C14 filters downwards to lower atmosphere 3. Organisms consume c14 4. Ratio maintained during life (c14 unstable, c12 stable) 5. Death/consumption stops 6. C14 decays 7. Half life 5700 years |
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Problems With Carbon Dating
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1. Precision (age) 1-5% reliability
2. Preservation (if daughter drawn out, can't determine age) 3. Lab (procedure done improperly) |
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Plate Tectonics
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- Understanding behavior of earth's crust
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Geological Survey
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- 1830s
- Enormous continental peripheries (New England) |
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Continental Interior
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- No mountains
- Thin sedimentary rocks - Thousands of feet - Subgraywacke, limestone, thin shale |
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Never Fillable Ocean Hypothesis
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- James Hall
- Couldn't fill ocean with sand & clay - 1840 |
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James Hall Questions
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1. How did mountains form?
2. Where did sediments come from? |
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Hypotheses About Sediment
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1. Appalachia Or Atlantis? (continent no longer in existence)
2. Island Archipelago (1960s problem: debate about sourcelands, came up with plate tectonics - earth's crust) |
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Oceanic & Continental Plates
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- Oceanic: basalt
- Continental: granite on top of basalt |
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3 Convergances
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1. Ocean & ocean
2. Ocean & continent 3. Continent & continent |
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1970
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- Explanations for mountain building
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Mobile Belts
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- Scars of collisions
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Origin Of Universe Questions
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1. How did universe come into existence?
2. What is the universe? |
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3 Origin Of Universe Hypotheses
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1. Universe is forever
2. Universe is 13.8 billion years old & Big Bang Theory 3. Big Bang only part of universe (others) |
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Edwin Hubble
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- 1920s
- Wanted to answer: "Are stars still in space, if not which way are they moving? - Blue light close, red far away - Doppler Effect: pitch of sound higher towards you - Measured light in galaxies, found red shifted - Universe is expanding - Singularity: point which is infinitely dense & caught |
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Discoveries
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- Big Bang Theory: 13.8 bya, universe explodes from singularity, expanding entity
- Element of inflation - Accelerated expansion slowed but continued |
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Facts
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- All matter appears from subatomic particles
- All forces of universe appear (electromagnetism, gravity, weak & strong forces) - Natural laws of physics - First atoms assembled themselves - First 380,000 years universe was hot, bright, dense (plasma universe) - "Dark Ages": hydrogen blocks light, first stars form, first galaxies form - Universe lights up again |
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Origin Of Solar System
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- 4.7 bya earth formed from star that blew up (supernova)
- Proto sun & planets getting bigger - Heat of impact, heat of compaction, radioactivity) - Sunrise appears during T Tauri Stage (star ignites) |
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Paleontology
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- Study of fossils & history of life
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Paleontology Branches
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- Vertebrate (dinosaurs)
- Invertebrate - Paleobotany |
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Fossilization
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1. Trace Fossils: presence of activity of organism (prints, eggs, teeth marks)
2. Body Fossils 3. Unaltered Soft Parts: altered soft parts (carbonization), unaltered hard parts (shell, bone, teeth), altered hard parts (made out of wrong material), molds & casts (cavity) |
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Origin Of Atmosphere
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- T Tauri Stage
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2 Hypotheses About Earth's Atmosphere
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1. Outgassing: volcanic gases escape from surface (steam, hydro, carb, nit, lack of o)
2. Comet Impact: comets hit earth & contributed to ATM) |
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Origins Of Oceans
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- Outgassing: steam coded
- Comets: hit earth & produce water |
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Precambrian Rocks Of North America
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- Continent centric
- Hadean (4.7-4 bya) - Archean (4-2.5 bya) - Proterozoic (2.5 bya-542 mya) - Vendian (1 bya-542 mya) |
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2 Precambrian Rock Types
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1. Mafic (Basalt)
2. Felsic (Granite) - Granite doesn't float to surface like basalt |
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Origin Of Granite & Continents
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1. Protocontinents: 3-4 bya, produce granite, get bigger
2. Plate Tectonics: subduction occurs (collision of 2 proto continents), partial melting - brings up granite - Granitization: rocks melt, mountains build, cool, & turn into sedimentary rocks, granite 3. Cratonization: protocontinents collide & combine to form one 4. Formation Of Super continents: 3 (Rodinia: 1 bya, Pannotia: 550 mya) |
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Origin Of Life
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What is life?
1. Self-replicating 2. Possesses ribonucleic acid Why earth? 1. Abundance of c, h, o, n 2. Abundance of water 3. Right temperature How did life form? 1. No fossil record or stratified rocks to determine life sequence |
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1953
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- Miller Urey Origin Of Life Experiment
- Wanted to replicate organic compounds of earth - Found amino acids, which were only in living creatures - Found organic molecules - Organic Soup Hypothesis: must have happened in earliest oceans in earth, made more complex entities |
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Steps In Origin Of Life
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1. Forming amino acids
2. Linking amino acids to proteinoids, then proteins 3. Linking proteins form nucleiotides: quanine, adenine, thiamine, cytosine 4. Linking nucleotides make nucleic acids 5. Linking nucleic acids create RNA/dna: not accomplished yet 6. Wrap it all in cell wall |
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Parodoxites
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oldest known fossil found by Sedgwick
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1.4 BYA
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first eukaryotic cells appeared
1.4-1.8 BYA euaryotic cells being perfected, not enough oxygen to become multicellular |
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Oxygen Sinks
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released oxygen in air
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Primitive Animals
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most advanced eukaryotes, most eukaryotic cell became most primitive animals
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Choanoflagellate
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preanimal cell, unicellular
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Zygote
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one celled animal
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Jellyfish Embryonic Development
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1. zygote: fertilized egg
2. blastula: bundle of cells 3. gastula: embryo develops pouch, then gut, has tissue (ectoderm, endoderm, mesoderm) 4. planula: looks like real animal, mouth, poorly developed gut, some nervous abilities |
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Flagella
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helps to swim
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Earliest Animal Fossils
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1. Trace Fossils: movement (burrows - skolithos (750-800 million years, oldest animal making trace fossil))
2. Ediacaran Fauna: discovered in Australia, 650-610 MYA, quartz sand on top of black shale, not supposed to be (worms, sea pens, jellyfish, things) - Vendazoans 3. Small Shelly faunas (610-560 MYA) late Vendian: actual shells 4. Archeocyathids: extinct, unknown 5. Paradoxides (542 MYA), trilobite 6. Cambrian Diversification/Explosion: invertebrates appeared (mollusks, sponges, brachiopods, echinoderm, crustaceans) |
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Snowball Earth Hypothesis
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700 MYA: glacial deposits on all but one continent, ice sheets, ice on equator, continents drifted to equator by chance, earth listing heat because of clouds
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Runaway Glaciation
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sun hidden by clouds, reflected back in space, becomes cold and expands until snowball, steam and carbon dioxide from volcanoes causes deglaciation
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CD Walcott
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discovered fossils in middle Cambrian, Burgess shale (soft bodies inside) 1912
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Cambrian Explosion
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800 MYA: trace fossils
780 MYA: ediacaran faunas 650 MYA: small Shelly faunas 570 MYA: archeocyathids 541MYA: trilobite 540 MYA: diverse assemblage |
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Late Cambrian Evolution
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Cephalopods: octopus, squid, nautiloid, not good at swimming, predators, captured victims with tentacles
Fish: no proper mouth Humans: bottom of food chain |
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Greenhouse Earth
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1. Many broad shallow tropical seas
2. Few mountain ranges 3. Pervasive warm climate (pole-equator) 4. Enormous amounts of CO2 (16x more), sun can't reflect back into space, planet warms up |
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Chapters Of Greenhouse Earth
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1. Cambrian Stability: transgression
2. Early Middle Ordovician Seas: shellfish, shell composed of calcium carbonate, rapid evolution and diversification, abundant clams, coral, crinoids, starfish 3. Silurian/Early Devonian: widespread tropic seas, vast coral reefs, salt basins |
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Salt Basins
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bodies of water in shallow sea where crust subsided, evaporation caused more saltwater to be drawn in and evaporated
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Icehouse Earth
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produced by lack of CO2
why? 1. Rising Mountain Ranges: weathering occurs, decompose, consume CO2, combines with rock, produced sediment, disintegrates 2. Evolution Of Forests: CO2 helped grow trees, roots accelerate weathering 3. Durial Of Coal, Oil, Natural Gas: climate becomes colder, then warmer, loses CO2 |
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Chapters Of Icehouse Earth
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1. Late Ordovician
2. Mid-late Devonian |
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Taconic Orogeny
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mountain ranges rise, then weather, Appalachia range formed
deposit after waves mountain building regression |
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Acadian Orogeny
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mid-late Devonian
crumbled rock left from crust squeezed, mountain range formed then weathered, sediments carried down torrents Devonshire in England origin of old red sandstone Catskill Delta became mountains after uplifting Acadian Mountains weathered and became Catskill Basin |
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Our Story
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1. Dorsal Nerve Chord (spine)
2. Noto Chord: only in embryo, prespine, gelatinous rod 3. Gill Slits: embryo, disappeared |
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Prefish
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1. Ascidians: early primitive chordates, lived life of sponge, ejected water, alive today, dorsal, noto, tadpole larva
2. Amphioxus: alive today in oceans, can swim but not fish, has tail, noto, dorsal, gills, chordate, no spine 3. Conodont: made of calcium phosphate 4. Burgess Shale Chordate: oldest known, gills, chords |
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Silurian Fish
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1. Ostracoderms: jawless fish, paired eyes, small grasp mouth, no proper fins or scales, bone skeleton
2. Acanthodians: lots of fins, jaws, scales replacing bones 3. Placoderms: jaws, very heavy dermal armor made of bone, no teeth, 40 ft biggest, mostly freshwater, meat cleaver structures instead of teeth 4. Sharks: developed late Devonian, no bones, skeleton made of cartilage, replaceable teeth that rotate out, pinnacle of evolution 5. Bony Fish: modern fish, osteichthye, jaws with teeth, thin flexible scales, 4 fins front and back, bony rays in each fin |
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Invertebrate Competitors Of Fish
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1. Eurypterids: sea scorpions, potential predators of chordates, clumsy, couldn't swim well, inflexible
2. Nautiloids: keen eyesight, poor swimmers because of conical shell, succeeded by coiled nautiloids (more agile, shell weighed too much, evolved into ammonoids - resisted being crushed by jaws of fish, lost ground |
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Invasion Of The Land
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1. Plants: first to establish food pyramid, chlorophyta: single celled, photosynthetic, complex, lichen: combo of algae and fungi
2. Moss: reproductive structures produce spores |
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Vascular Plants
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vascular tissue in stems , can evolve stem, branch, leaf to get water
1. Psilophyte: primitive, tropics, spore producing bodies, dry out, turn black, spores disappear 2. Lycopsid: produces leaves, start in middle stem, move through branches, first trees, not proper roots 3. Sphenopsid: spore producing body, roseates of leaves equisetum: spore beaning body 4. Fern: black dots on underside ( spores) |
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Gilboa Forest
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village in center of Catskills, NYC burned it, put in reservoir, fossil forest discovered there, earliest forest ecology
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Gilboa Tree
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produces spores
1920s |
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Gilboa Animals
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creepy crawlers, silverfish: 6 legs, eats paper, primitive insect
1. Arthropleurids: herbivores, ancestors of centipedes 2. Centipedes: poisonous, not strong enough to bite and infect 3. Millipedes: like sun 4. Mites: small, can't usually be seen, can see big red ones 5. Scorpions, spiders 6. Triganotarbids: predator of Gilboa, 8 legged, shreds victim |
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Panther Mountain
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asteroid impact, couldn't find evidence, could've hit Catskill Delta
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Maryland Impact
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asteroid crashed where state is today
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Fossil Record Of Early Land Vertebtates
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1. Eustenopterons (ichefinnel lungfish), lungs, no fingers or wrists
2. Tiktaalik: 10 years ago, more advanced, but not quite, skull of amphibian, gills, lungs, wrists, finger bones, 6 ft long 3. Ichthyostega: earliest primitive amphibian, legs, no gills, lungs |
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Pangaea
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supercontinent, Africa collided with eastern North America, Himalayas formed
Alleghenian Orogeny produced Appalachian Mountains |
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Great Delta Complex
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jungle, cold swamp, Rose, then weathered, tropical climate, water, plants, later coal
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Carboniferous Jungle Plants
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psilophytes, lycopsids, sphenopsids, ferns, seeds, conifer
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Carboniferous Coal
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1840s
Anthracite: black, shiny, burns |
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Glaciation
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shallow seas become ice, seas drain, warms again, normal again
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Killer Tree Hypothesis
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CO2 lacking in air, cold, extinction, 2 appearances (late Devonian)
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Extinction
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2 episodes, 70% then 80%, all corals & trilobite
many brachiopods & crinoids & therapsids extinct |
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Why Permian Extinction
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black shales & oxygen depleted oceans
1. Volcanic Eruptions (100,000 miles squared, lava flow) 2. Stagnation Of Ocean 3. Dramatic Shifts In Climate (dry & wet) last trilobites: late Permian |
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Thecodonts
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early archosaurs (2 legged posture, small, active, bipodal)
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William Buckland
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first to describe dinosaur & found 40% of skeleton, 25 ft long)
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Edward Hitchcock
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geo professor, collected dino footprints, thought them to be birds
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