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181 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Immanent
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Existing within the material universe usually in nature (associated with Animistic religions)
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Transcendent
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Existing outside of or beyond the material universe (associated with monotheistic religions)
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Animism
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Religious ideology in which nature has a direct sacred influence.
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Monotheism
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The religious belief in a single transcended deity.
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Science
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According to Lynn White, the theoretical understanding of nature
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Technology
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According to White, the practical manipulation of nature.
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Natural resources
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a broad reaching concept which refers to both tangible and intangible wealth which humans have the ability and desire to utilize. Resources are group specific (determined by culture) and time specific (resources may gain or lose value over time).
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Resource Curse: LDCs and agriculture
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1. A mineral boom draws foreign investment into the local economy but this investment is poorly integrated into the local economies with the majority of profits flowing over seas.
2. Local Inflation rises due to the demand for goods and services outpacing their production (this rarely affects commodities) – Most local people are not benefiting from the resource extraction but are forced to pay higher prices. 3. Cyclical pattern of strengthening currency discouraging exports and increasing inflation 4. This weakens production, consumption and fiscal linkages in the traded sector (agriculture and manufacturing) because fewer resources are allocated to these now unprofitable areas. |
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Growth linkages
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1. Production linkages
2. Consumption linkages 3. fiscal linkages |
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Energy
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The capacity to do work
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Ecosystem
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Organisms and the biophysical environment interacting to exchange energy and materials. Ecosystems can differ in both the amount of energy exchanged (productivity) within the system and the scale of the system.
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Productivity
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A measure of the conversion of energy into living material or biomass
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Traditional farming
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a method of farming which produces most of its energy inputs and consumes most of its energy outputs.
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Modern farming
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A method of farming in which most of the energy inputs are bought and most of its energy outputs are sold.
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Agribusiness
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The totality of operations involved in the modern production and distribution of food.
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Shifting Cultivation
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1. Clearing made in the forest
2. A variety of crops is planted 3. The crops are harvested for a short period of time (1 or 2 years) 4. The clearing is abandoned to the invading forest 5. A new clearing is started Birgman fig. 4-26 and text |
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Energy Expenditure: Traditional vs. Modern Farming
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1. Traditional Farming:
a) Solar energy b) human energy 2. Modern Farming: a) Solar Energy b) Human energy c) Fossil Fuels d) Machinery: this includes Artificial fertilizers, Mechanized irrigation, genetic research. |
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Parts of Agribusiness
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1. Input Sector: machinery, seed, fencing
2. Farm Sector 3. Product Marketing: wheat Pool, processing, manufacturing, research, distribution |
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3 main ways modern agriculture was industrialized
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1. Intensification: fertilizer, industrial machinery
2. Concentration: Fewer but larger farms 3. Specialization: mono-cultures both in a field and regionally |
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Location Factors for Industry or Manufacturing
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1. Capital
2. Technology 3. Hospitable Government Regulations 4. Political Stability 5. Inertia: the tendency of industry to remain in an original location |
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Import Substitution method of economic growth
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The protection of domestic industries through tariffs and trade barriers that discourage the entry of foreign goods.
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Export-led method of economic growth
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The internal or external financing of manufacturing and industry with the intention of providing goods to an international market.
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Foreign direct investment
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the investment in enterprises owned and operated by foreign companies.
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Alfred Weber
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Researched locational determinants of industry in the 19th and 20th century
Focused on transport costs 2 main factors 1. Proximity to raw materials: these had a strong pull on bulk reducing industries 2. Proximity to markets: these had a strong pull on bulk gaining industries |
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Rise of the modern city is dependent on:
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:
1. Removal of Barriers to expansion a) Food surpluses removed agricultural restrictions b) both peace time and technological advances in weaponry made defensive structures obsolete 2. The Means of Expansion a) advances in transportation |
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The Pedestrian City
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up to 1870/1880s
Predominant modes of transportation: 1. Horse and carriage 2. Horsecar These limited both how far a city could expand and limited the suburban migration to the extremely wealthy. |
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The Streetcar City
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up to 1920/1930s
Predominant modes of transportation: 1. Horse drawn 2. Street Car: an electric trolley system which could achieve speeds up to 20 km/h Street cars expanded the distance it was feasible to travel and provided cheap transportation to a larger number of people but it was predominantly inflexible, public transport. |
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The Automobile City
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up to present
Predominant modes of transportation: 1. Public transportation 2. automobiles |
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As a cheap, flexible mode of transportation the car changed the city in 3 major ways
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1. Transformation in physical size
2. Transformation in physical density 3. Transformation in spatial organization *compare the effects of the shopping cart on the grocery store |
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Infectious Disease
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The result of a pathogen invading a host.
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Pathogen
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disease causing organisms which enter and multiply within the body
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Vector
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An intermediate host that spreads a disease e.g. mosquitoes
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Man Made Malaria
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Malaria caused by irrigation in the tropics
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Hemorrhagic fever
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illness characterized by high fever and bleeding disorders
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2 reasons for the recent environmental concern
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1. Knowledge- knowledge has continued to become more in depth and holistic since the age of exploration into extremely recent history e.g. plate tectonics became orthodox in 1960
2. Timing- The environmental impact of industrialization has been more and more noticeable since WWII |
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George Perkins Marsh
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Early environmental conservationist
Most influential work was “Man and Nature” 1864 · focused on deforestation as well as · River degradation · Desertification · Wildlife declines 3 suggestions for forest conservation 1. Return ¼ of the land to forests 2. Monitor environmental changes 3. Educate for environmental awareness |
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Driving Forces behind modern environmental degradation
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1. Exploding populations- more people = more pollution
2. Advancing Technology- the ability to be more destructive 3. Growing Affluence- the well off consume more resources These 3 factors lead to historical momentum as environmental degradation increases over time. |
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How does the environmental tradition view religion? At a deeper level how does religion work in regards to geography?
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Environmental tradition - religion's expression on the land: places of worship, burial, etc.
Deeper level: influences how humans shape the earth |
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According to Lynn White, human impact on the earth is deeply conditioned by what?
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Religion, that is by beliefs about nature and destiny. Our environmental actions - what we do - are shaped by our environmental attitudes - what we think - and religion influences these attitudes
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Easter societies are likely to seek ______ with nature, while Western societies are likely to _____ their ______ on nature.
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East - harmony
West - impose their will |
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Traditional Eastern views of nature include 3 primary values.
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1.nature is imbued with the sacred
2. sacred is immanent within nature 3. animistic (nature has a direct sacred influence) |
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Traditional Western views of nature include 3 primary values.
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1. nature is NOT directly sacred
2. the sacred is transcendent (exists beyond the material world) 3. monotheistic (belief in a single transcended deity) |
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When was Lynn White's article on the roots of our ecological crisis published?
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1967
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According to White, what did Christianity tell people about their relationships with the environment?
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That humankind is God's supreme creation and no item in the physical creation had any purpose save to serve man's purpose.
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According to White, what was the catalyst of our current ecological crisis?
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The Western marriage of science and technology
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White pin-points the beginning of the rise of modern technology and it is BEFORE the scientific and industrial revolutions - what date does he give and what was the technology?
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1000 CE - water power
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What happened in the Middle Ages to set the West on the path towards our ecological crisis?
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There was a fundamental shift in outlook towards the natural world when Christianity took hold of Europe replacing the previously animistic Pagan religions.
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Why are science and religion so intricately linked?
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Because early Christian beliefs centered around the desire to understand nature as a way to get closer to God (understand the creation to understand the Creator). Many of the most important early scientists were devout Christians trying to get closer to God (including Newton)
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Where is the hearth region of White's arguments?
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the Latin West or Western Europe (opposite: Greek East, dividing country: today's Yugoslavia)
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Where does White pin point the beginning of modern science? What was the first pursuit of modern science at this time?
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11th century - translation of ancient Greek and Arabic texts into Latin
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What does White believe about the bible creation?
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That the bible tells Christians that God had planned the rest of creation for human benefit
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What was White's conclusion?
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That Christianity was historically crucial in setting the West on its path towards "our ecological crisis"
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Name at least 4 areas in which religion has a direct influence on human behavior.
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Politics
Economics Agriculture Diet |
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Globally, which religion is estimated to have the largest following? 2nd largest?
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1. Christianity
2. Islam |
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Which religion was the first of the great monotheisms?
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Judaism
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What is the central belief of Judaism?
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A belief in a pact between God and the Jewish people that they would follow God's law as revealed in the Pentateuch (Old Testament) as given to Abraham
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Where did Judaism originate? Which country considers itself a Jewish state?
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the Near East
Israel (although there is tension and violence over Palestinian claims to land in Israel) |
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What is the central belief of Christianity and from what religion did it emerge?
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Central belief: God lived on earth as Jesus Christ
Emerged from: Judaism |
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Who was the first non-Jew to convert to Christianity and how is this relevant to the diffusion of the religion?
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First non-Jew: Ethiopian
Spread: from Egypt to today's Ethiopia by 4th century |
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Which country was the first Christian nation?
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Armenia
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What year did Constantinople fall and to which group?
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1453 - Muslim Turks
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What region is considered the hearth region of Christianity?
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Judea (where Jesus lived his entire life and where his teachings began). Jesus' teachings were carried on by Saint Paul who preached in the major cities of the eastern Mediterranean
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In 1969 who did Pope Jon Paul proclaim the Saint of Environmental Causes?
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Saint Francis
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When did the 'marriage' of science and technology occur?
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1850
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Where was the Western European spiritual focus and what was the language?
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Rome
Latin |
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Where was the Eastern European spiritual focus? What was the language of scholarship?
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Constantinople
Greek |
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Muslim Umma
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International or global community of muslims
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Agnostic
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doubtful or noncommital about the existence of God
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Sacerdotalism
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belief that a church or priests intercede between God and humans
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Genetic Engineering
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the manipulation of a species genetic material
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Zionism
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a belief that the Jews should have a homeland in Palestine
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Green Revolution
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1950's pursuit to develop new grain varieties and associated agronomic systems for establishment in developing countries
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Scientific Revolution in Agriculture
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continuing application of science to agriculture that began in the late 18th century
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Sawah
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Flooded fields where rice grows: Indonesian word
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Double Cropping
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two crops can be harvested in one year from one field in places with relatively warm winters
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Value added by manufacturing
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difference between the value of a raw material and the value of a product which is manufactured from that raw material
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Downstream Activites
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economic activities close to the consumer in the flow from their sources (they add value and are profitable)
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Psychological value added
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Adding to the sales price of a product without increasing its usefulness but by increasing its price through design, packaging or status advertising
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Biotechnology
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A variety of new techniques for modifying organisms and their physiological processes for applied purposes
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Diminishing Returns
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in adding equal amounts of one factor of production than the application preceding it
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Natural Resource
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Anything occurring in nature that humans use and value
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Potential Resource
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Anything that might become a resource in the near future
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Supply and Demand
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the interplay of buyers and sellers of a commodity in a market place
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Externalities
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Anything that is not included in the cost of a good or service (example: pollution)
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Substitutability
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The degree to which one commodity can be exchanged for another
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Renewable Resources
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replaced continually at least within a human lifetime
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Non-Renewable Resources
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Form so slowly that for practical purposes they cannot be replaced when used
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Cartel
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A group of countries that agree to control a particular market by limiting production in order to drive prices up
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Import Substitution Method of Economic Growth
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A national economic policy of protecting domestic infant industries
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Export-Led Method of Economic Growth
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A national economic policy welcoming foreign investment to build factories that will manufacture goods for international markets
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Gross Domestic Product
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Total value of all goods and services produced within a country
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Gross National Income
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GDP
+ any income that residents receive from foreign investment - any money paid out of the country to foreign investors |
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Foreign Direct Investment (FDI)
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Investment by companies abroad in enterprises that they own and operate
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Economic Development
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Progressively increasing the value of goods and services that a place is able to produce in order to enjoy or export
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Ploycentric City
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the multi-centered city, linked by freeways, a loose coalition or urban places crowded together and dotted with multiple foci of retail and offices
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What is the central belief of Christianity?
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That God lived on earth as Jesus Christ
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What does Islam mean?
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Submission to God's will
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What are the 5 pillars of Islam?
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1. Belief in God
2. Five daily prayers 3. Generous giving of alms 4. Fasting during Ramadan 5. A pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in one's life |
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What are the three Abrahamic religions?
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Judaism; Christianity; Islam
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What are the two opposing sects within Islam?
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Sunni Muslims and Shiite Muslims
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Where is Hinduism the national religions?
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India and Nepal
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The central belief of Buddhism is what?
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The four noble truths;
1. Life involves suffering 2. The causes of suffering is desire 3. Elimination of desire ends suffering 4. Desire can be eliminated by right thinking and behavior |
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Why can no division be made between Church and State in Islamic nations?
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The religion teaches that government exists to aid its people in living a good Muslim life
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Which religion is said to foster capitalism?
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Protestanism
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What is the name of the Hindu sect leading the world's most successful and oldest conservation effort in the Great Indian Desert?
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Bishnoi
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What is the basic religious concept of the Bishnoi people?
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To treat all living things with respect and dignity
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(simple definition) Dutch Disease
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a resource boom that destabalizes a key sector of the local economy - often agriculture
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What is considered to be the most productive ecosystem?
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The Rainforest
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Agriculture is a way of doing what?
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Manipulating nature's energy flows and biogeochemical processes to take advantage of food
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Modern mining in the LDCs is largely done by who?
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TNCs who employ only a small fraction of the local workforce and integrate the operation poorly into the local economy
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In the mineral rich LDCs which is the most vulnerable sector?
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Agriculture
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How was Nigeria's agricultural sector sabotaged?
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By oil booms which brought a sudden flood of foreign currency. However the influx of money was poorly spent and falsely lured people away from farming activities to more lucrative jobs in construction in the cities. The influx of cash strengthened the currency which actually served to harm the export industry making cash crops less competitive, further damaging the economy
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According to Bergman, natural resources are defined in context of the three elements of a society:
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1. Cultural Values: they influence people's decision that a commodity is desirable and acceptable to use
2. Technology: the society must have a level of technology capable of using the resource 3. Economic System: affects whether a resource is affordable and accessible |
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According to Bergman when one mineral is substituted for another, it causes its price to rise creating 4 important consequences which will prevent depletion of the dwindling mineral:
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1. Demand for the mineral will decrease slowing its rate of depletion
2. Mining companies will have added incentive to locate and extract new deposits of the mineral 3. Recycling of the mineral will become more feasible 4. Research to find substitute minerals will intensify |
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Within 30 years which minerals are predicted to be depleted (3)?
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Lead
Zinc Copper |
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In regards to minerals where are 60 percent of the world's reserves?
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Within the boarders of the top 5 countries
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Generalized cropping is subsistence farming for home consumption and for a variety of other needs. It is characterized by what?
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-clearings of land planted with a medley of crops (like a patchwork quilt)
-crops available 12 months of the year -slows down nutrient depletion -patchwork quilt nature of generalized cropping resembles the tropical rainforest in miniature, mimicking the layering process creating a protective quality -A SUN DERIVED SYSTEM OF FARMING |
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What are the three levels of the tropical forest?
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1. High level canopy
2. Middle levels - densest 3. Low level - shade tolerant species |
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What is the primary energy subsidy of modern agriculture?
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Fossil fuels
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Does more or less energy go into modern farming than comes out as food?
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More
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What are the 2 key characteristics of ecosystems created by modern farming?
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1. the fields are permanent and with the use of fertilizers there is no need to leave them fallow
2. The cropping is specialized and investment in machinery encourages monoculture |
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By what means can ownership and control in modern farming shift between sectors?
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Vertical Integration
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What are some of the ways successful farming has been transformed in the later half of the 20th century?
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Rise of specialized production
Pursuit of economies of scale Emphasizing capital over labor Reliance on input from the broader scientific industrial economy |
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What are the three forces shaping modern agriculture?
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1. Intensification (rising levels of input as farmers try to remain more profitable)
2. Concentration (trend towards fewer but larger farms) 3. Specialization (trends towards monoculture) |
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Manufacturing is a key path to economic growth, but the key to wealth is?
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Adding value to raw materials ("value added")
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What is the broad goal of the import substitution agenda?
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To build an industrial sector on the basis of the home national market before opening up to foreign competition
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The export led agenda is heavily directed toward what?
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international markets, manufacturing for export, mostly with rich countries in mind
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The key player in the industrial sector and FDI is who?
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The transnational corporation or TNC
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What are the two primary motivations of TNCs?
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cheaper labor
tariff jumping |
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What are some benefits for the host country where TNCs locate?
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Jobs
Bringing of new technologies and skills to poorer areas Joint ventures with national industries / companies Piggybacking process (poor countries try to grow economically on the back of TNCs) Bringing of FDI to the local economy |
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What did the Economist magazine say about TNCs, total global industrial output and GNP?
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That the world's largest 1000 TNCs produce 4/5ths of the world's total industrial output and their annual sales are greater than the GNP of many nations
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In the 19th century how did TNCs rise to prominence?
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British European firms began investing heavily in the newly industrializing countries like Canada, Australia, Argentina
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In the 1970s how many TNCs existed? Today?
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1970s - 7000
Today - 60,000 |
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What are the two ways TNCs show a geographical bias?
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1. they tend to focus their operations in countries near by that are framiliar
2. focus their operations in core areas like Europe, US and Japan |
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FDI still focuses primarily on which countries?
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MDCs
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GDP and GNI are two most common measures used for evaluating an economy. Why are they deceiving?
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Assumes that goods and services can only possess value it they are exchanged
They undercount subsistence areas exaggerate the degree to which modern areas dominate national economies Cannot account for activities in the illegal sector Cannot be compared across nations because they're calculated in local currencies Fail to address the environmental damage brought on by growth |
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In regards to sectoral evolution, how are Preindustrial, Industrial and Postindustrial societies characterized?
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Preindustrial: majority of employment in the primary sector
Industrial: bulk of employment in the secondary sector Postindustrial: majority of employment in tertiary sector |
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Economic Colonialism
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MDCs locating manufacturing in other MDCs, the eventual market for most goods is in the MDCs, they import raw materials from the LDCs and provide value added services and the grasp the MDCs have has produced tremendous inertia
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Which three countries are known as The Triad and what percentage of FDI do they account for?
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The USA
The EU Japan |
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Which three trends characterize the geography of FDI?
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1. 75% of global FDI is invested from one rich country to another
2. FDI in developing countries has been selective and usually its countries that choose the export-led method 3. Each Triad member has a majority share of the FDI in a cluster of countries that have become its satellites |
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Which 4 countries make up the Four Tigers?
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Singapore
South Korea Taiwan Hong Kong |
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What does farming do in regards to ecosystems?
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Replaces natural ecosystems with human ones
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What are some consequences of replacing natural ecosystems with human ones?
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overall productivity falls
ecosystem complexity falls - farming's specialized ecosystems are highly fragile |
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What three manufacturing variables did Alfred Weber investigate? What was it in relation to?
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Weber studied the role of transport costs in relation to:
Raw Materials (materials-oriented industries) Market (market-oriented industries) Labor (2 dimensions: cost and skill) |
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Why is the least intensive form of farming called cultivation instead of agriculture?
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Because the word agriculture usually implies greater use of tools and animals and more extensive modifications of the landscape
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What type of population can shifting cultivation support? Does it do environmental damage?
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Supports low levels of population without causing environmental damage
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2 risks regarding cash crops
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Price of the product could collapse because of overproduction
Prices for the food they will have to buy could rise faster than their own incomes |
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Urban Growth
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The physical and demographic growth of a city
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Urbanization
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The proportion of a country's population living in cities
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3 reasons Urban population data is unreliable
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1. Difficult to know where urban areas begin and end
2. The population threshold for a city to qualify as urban is different and arbitrary from country to country 3. With all definitions, an accurate count of all people is difficult |
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What was a primary cause of urbanization?
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The industrial revolution
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As a rule, western urbanization went hand in hand with what two economic processes?
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Industrialization
Economic development / growth |
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90% of urban population growth is occurring where?
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LDCs
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What is a ecumenopolis?
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A prediction by urban theorists that national urban systems will become linked internationally into a global urban network by the end of the century
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What urban processes are leading towards ecumenopolis?
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the grand coalescence of building along major transportation networks, filling the gaps between cities
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What is a megalopolis? What are 2 examples?
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A megalopolis is the growing together of two or more large cities.
BosWash (Boston/Washington) ChiPits (Chicago/Pittsburgh) |
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What is a mega city? How is it different from a megalopolis?
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A mega city is defined demographically vs. spatially: For a city to qualify as a mega city it must have over 10 million inhabitants
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What are some of the problems facing cities in the LDCs?
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The speed of development
The scale of development Industrialization is not playing as large of a role as it did in the western countries Migrants are flocking to cities because rural areas are densely populated and intensely poor |
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When the demand for jobs cannot be met by cities what happens? Give an example of a city with a dominant unoffical economy.
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The unofficial or underground economy takes over.
Turkey has an unofficial economy that accounts for 50% of all economic activity |
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In the LDCs what are 3 problems created by mass migration to the cities?
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1. Inadequate housing stock
2. Inadequate infrastructure 3. Dangerous environments |
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George Cruikshank's 19th century cartoon showing an out of control London depicted which suburb and was called what?
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Brixton
London Going Out of Town OR The March of Bricks and Mortar |
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The traditional city was small in scale and comparison to modern cities. However, there were three ancient exceptions, all capital cities of empires. What were they?
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Babylon
Rome Arab Baghdad |
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What were the 3 major restrictions on city size in the past?
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1. Limited Agricultural Productivity
2. Defense Needs 3. Pedestrianism |
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What were 3 characteristics of traditional cities?
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1. High-density living
2. Limited mobility 3. Interspersed land uses |
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What 3 forces worked together to allow for the rise of the boundless city?
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1. Rising Agricultural productivity
2. Obsolete defenses 3. Advances in transportation |
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What three transformations did the automobile make in regards to cities?
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1. transformed the physical size of cities
2. transformed the density of cities (less dense as they spread outwards) 3. transformation in spatial organization (lead to development of the polycentric city) |
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How many deaths per year did the WHO attribute to suspended fine particles (pollution emitted by vehicles) in urban Latin America?
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200,000
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According to WHO, the three worst types of pollution are air, water and what?
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Noise
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An aerotropolis is what?
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A term used to describe the increasing urbanization that is cropping up around major airports, making the airports the centers of cities of their own. An example would be Dallas/Fort-Worth International Airport. A strong contributing factor to the development of aerotropoli is the use of just-in-time manufacturing
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What three things occurred that lead to a decline of the CBDs?
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1.The departure of the middle class to the suburbs
2. spatial mismatch hypothesis (low income housing is located in the central cities so concentrates the poor there, but the low-skill entry level jobs have migrated to the suburbs) 3. unskilled jobs left the cities while large numbers of unskilled workers poured in 3. |
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Ixodes ticks are vectors for which disease?
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Lyme Disease
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Body lice are vectors for which disease?
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Typhus
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Aedes Mosquites are vectors for which disease?
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Dengue Fever
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Anopheles Mosquitoes are vectors for which disease?
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Malaria
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Man made malaria is due to what?
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An increase in the occurrence of malaria with an increase in irrigation
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As countries develop the leading causes of death shift from what to what?
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parasitic and infectious to degenerative
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What three "old killers" are back?
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Typhus; chollera; tuberculosis
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Which emerging disease are responsible for 1/3 of all human deaths?
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AIDS; lyme disease; Ebola and Junin fever
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What are the non-geographic factors exposing humans to emerging diseases?
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1. changing social behaviors
2. health care failures 3. technology |
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What geographic factors are exposing humans to emerging diseases?
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1. Irrigation
2. Transforming vegetation 3. Extending the urban environment 4. Polluting waters 5. globalization |
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What are the 3 ways irrigation increases disease?
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1. Increases the number of vectors
2. Expands the vectors range 3. Human migration to the newly irrigated areas |
