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73 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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capital
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wealth in the form of money/assets for the purpose of investing
a substitute for labour effects the relative importance + availability of natural resources resources have no value until labour is applied |
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resources - trade and exchange
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as long as a country has access to resources your country can thrive, they don't have to come from within the country itself
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Land degradation + causes
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temporary or permanent decline in the productive capacity of the land
→ deforestation (Grainger 1992) forests protect soil from direct impact of rainfall, humus absorbs impact and increases infiltration capacity, vegetation increases shear strength of soil → agriculture loss of soil/vegetation, soil compaction, use of unsuitable areas → urbanisation → construction → war → mining |
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prevention of land degradation
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Maintain good soil structure
have sufficient levels of organic matter keep soil moist used a mixed farming system windbreaks – hedges, trees protect from raindrop impact contour ploughing |
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carrying capacity
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The number of people, other living organisms, or crops that a region can support without environmental degradation
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Cumulative Causation Model – Gunnar Myrdal
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countries with initial resource advantage (UK – coal) may have the advantage to develop
growth continues for as long as comparative advantage remains threats to advantage are: → new technology → exhaustion of raw materials → changing market demand |
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polarisation (backwash effects) + trickle down (spread effects) Hirschmann of cumulative causation
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backwash effects
→ separates growth regions from lagging ones → loss of labour + capital from lagging regions to growth → lower quality public services in lagging regions spread effects (from growth to lagging regions) → demand for raw materials → accumulated capital in growth regions looks for investment opportunities in lagging regions |
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Core/Periphery Models - Friedmann
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Core (growth regions)
→ high economic potential +access to capital → high in-migration → centre of political power → predominantly secondary/tertiary industry → external linkages Periphery (lagging regions) → low rates of economic growth → heavy primary industry → high out-migration → loss of resources → outdated technology |
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pollution
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addition of material/energy as a result of human actions to any part of the environment resulting in impairment to the functioning of environmental and ecological systems
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Humans + chemical pollution - Goudie
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humans burn fossil fuels which create heat and gasses that have an effect on the atmospheric condition, the environment and climate
3 main classes of chemical pollutants are → Nitrates and phosphates → Metals → Synthetic and industrial organic pollutants |
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greenhouse effect + aerosols
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more CO2 means less radiation leaves the atmosphere as heat
main causes of greenhouse effect are → fossil fuel combustion → cement production → deforestation aerosols are tiny particles of liquid or dust suspended in the atmosphere which aid to the cooling of the atmosphere by deflecting the radiation |
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biodiversity definition + related words
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→ Biodiversity the variety of life at all levels of biological organisation
→ Ecological niche - the role of an organism within its environment and community (affecting its survival as a species) → Competitive exclusion principle - no two species can occupy the same niche in the same environment for a long time → Habitat - an ecological or environmental area that is inhabited by a particular animal or plant species → Biomes are climatically and geographically defined areas of ecologically similar climatic conditions |
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importance of biodiversity
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biological resources in consumption or production (e.g. food, medicine, biological control, industrial materials, recreational harvesting and ecotourism)
>60% of world’s population relies on plant medicine but we need new medicines! indirect uses atmospheric, climatic and hydrological regulation nutrient cycling pest control photosynthesis pollination soil formation and maintenance |
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humans have caused a huge decline in biodiversity
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Overexploitation
Habitat loss and degradation Introduced species Extinction cascades |
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global atmospheric circulation
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The general movement and circulation of air, which transfers energy between different levels of the atmosphere
→ Intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) Vertical ascent of warm + moist air, LOW PRESSURE, Convergence of “trade winds” → Hadley Cell Vertical ascent of warm + moist air, Poleward flow, 10-15 km above the surface, Cooling, air descends in sub-tropics (30 °N&S), HIGH PRESSURE, equator-ward flow near the surface → Poles Cold air descending, High pressure (Polar High), High Latitudes, Low pressure, Converging air rises |
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pressure belts
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low pressure in tropics (warm moist air rising)
high pressure in mid-latitudes (air cooled at high altitudes descending) low pressure in higher latitudes (converging air rising) high pressure at poles (Polar High: cold air descending) |
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Coriolis effect
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the wind blows straight in one direction however it takes a curved path over the earth because the earth spins
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climate proxies
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sources of climate information from natural archives which can be used to estimate climate conditions prior to the modern period
3 types of proxies: geomorphological → the landscape and other natural features of the earth's surface: oxygen isotopes, ice cores lithological → the general physical characteristics of rocks: stalactites + stalagmites Biological → living organisms: tree rings, pollen, fossils |
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dating processes
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→ palaeomagmatism
we know when the earths magnetic field flips some rocks record the magnetic direction when magnetic minerals crystallise → radiometric the amount of radioactive decay of a radioactive isotope with a known half-life |
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mechanical/physical weathering (disintegration)
caused by stresses acting on or in the rocks that break down the rock fabric: generally at a weak point at a joint or bedding plane or at individual grain boundaries. |
→ Dilatation or pressure release by erosion of the overlying rock
→ Thermoclastis - temperature variations, rocks contract/expand due to heat changes → Crystal growth via the volumetric expansion of ice and/or salts. → Ice=9% volumetric expansion of water on freezing disrupts fabric of rocks, especially if held in fissures/cracks → biological - growth of plants in cracks |
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Chemical (decay/rotting)
caused by chemical reactions in the soil/rock, usually involving water and speeds up where supplies of heat and major reactants (water/solutes) are plentiful |
→ Hydration - reversible process whereby rocks absorb water and expand
→ hydrolysis - permanent chemical combination with water, rock minerals react with carbon in water to produces minerals with different volume and properties → carbonation - water and carbon combines creating a weak acid which can break down some minerals → oxidation - combination of water and oxygen to form oxide or hydroxide: rusting → biological - decomposition of plant/animals in soil releases natural acids and CO2 which boosts chemical decay |
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desert
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Less than 250mm rain per year (traditional)
2 types: hot desert & cold desert Few areas have no rain but variability is high water balance (aridity index) → precipitation=evapotranspiration + storage + runoff |
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locations + causes
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→ subtropics - cool, dry air descending as part if the global atmospheric circulation
→ continental - far from water sources → coastal - upwell of cold air → less able to retain moisture → orographic (rain cloud) - mountain ranges make air rise + increase cloud pressure causing the clouds to rain and leaving them dry thereafter → High albedo - high reflectivity of dry rock or white/sandy surfaces reinforces aridity → polar - cold air less able to retain water |
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3 main desert types
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→ Erg
sand dunes 12% of all deserts by area → Hamada mainly bare rock → Reg loose rock and gravel but no sand |
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fluvial influence in desert
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desert rainfall is sporadic in intense downpours, as the ground is so dry the infiltration is limited
Extreme temperatures plentiful wind → produced loose debris sparse vegetation → surface erosion high rapid fluvial downcutting in channel |
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desertification
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land degradation in arid, semiarid and dry sub-humid environments resulting from adverse human impact on the environment
→ overgrazing → over-cultivation → deforestation |
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urban hydrological effects
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Progressive conversion of natural landsurface to sealed, impervious surface
Potential hydrological effects: → Groundwater recharge (deep percolation) → water table lowered → Delivery of pollutants to river → Volume/speed of runoff change → Rates of erosion alter (on-site vs. off-site effects) |
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humans alter rivers
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→ they reach their peak discharge earlier and have a higher discharge because water run off increases, the water tables are lowered and the ground is less permeable
→ dykes and ditches encroach rivers → rivers are downgraded to drains or channelised, this merely sends the problems further downstream → wetlands are removed |
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flood prevention
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hold back water by
→ retaining it in an open space → sustainable farming + reafforestation → unseal urban areas → sustainable urban drainage systems give rivers more space → restore natural rivers → widen rivers → restore meanders → reclaim floodplains |
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Modernisation Theory
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development through science + technology
social and economic change through diffusion 'West is best' idea that western way of developing is right developed=modern, under/undeveloped=traditional |
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Arthur Lewis - capitalist/subsidence
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economic growth=development
industry over agriculture → capitalistic money and profit based industry → subsistence provide for your own people not based on money but on resources trade based labour |
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Hirschmann
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growth is unbalanced
there are centres of economic strength growth diffuses to weaker economic areas - “trickle-down” from core to periphery at global, national and regional scales urban growth poles → high growth tends to be in large urban areas |
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Rostow stages of development
1. traditional |
nature viewed as fatalistic
+75% of population working in agriculture social inertia → people didn't like change market divisions of wealth → obvious who is rich or poor |
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Rostow stages of development
2. transitional |
investment is at least 10% of national income
willing to risk capital factory production and division of labour → jobs defined for people, leading to higher productivity surplus from agriculture to industry development of centralised government → a government with power over a society |
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Rostow stages of development
3. take off |
self sustaining growth
continuing supply of investment continual innovation |
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Rostow stages of development
4. maturity |
mass urbanisation
majority of work force in industry white collar jobs national self confidence |
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Rostow stages of development
5. mass consumption |
high-value consumer goods + services
balance of employment in tertiary + quaternary sectors |
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Rostow stages of development critique
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unsympathetic to cultural differences
ecologically damaging assumes equality in developed areas |
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women
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Women represent around 70% of those in absolute poverty
→ women constitute half the world’s population, → perform nearly two-thirds of its work hours → receive one-tenth of the world’s income, and → own less than one-hundredth of the world’s property |
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structural adjustment effects on women
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policies implemented by the IMF + World Bank in developing countries
reductions in state provision (e.g. health expenditure) has the greatest impact on women greater expectation on women to provide services themselves e.g. provision of care for sick relatives |
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Women in Development (WID)
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Criticises development for seeing women as in need of welfare
Aims to bring women into development as equal to men as workers and producers Sees women as better carers of the environment → woman are most effected by environmental degradation have to travel further for wood/water |
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Women and Development (WAD)
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Does not mention men at all
Fails to challenge male dominated social structures Sees women as a unitary category No mention of class or wealth Women as victims of men |
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gender and development (GAD)
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Focus on gender relations
Aims to include men in development Analysis of practical needs Empowerment of women through development of “strategic gender needs” |
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practical and strategic gender needs
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practical - response to immediate perceived necessity
inadequacies of living conditions such as water provision, health care and employment does not challenge existing roles does not seek to change gender relations strategic women need identity because of their subordinated position within society relate to gender division of labour, power and control, legal rights, domestic violence, equal wages and women’s control over their own bodies does challenge existing roles does seek to change gender relations |
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structural adjustment
the policies implemented by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank in developing countries. These policy changes are conditions for getting new loans or for obtaining lower interest rates on existing loans. Conditions are implemented to ensure that the money lent will be spent in accordance with the overall goals of the loan. |
→ Reduction in the size of the state budget - Impacts of health and education provision
→ Reductions in public sector employment - Retrenchment → Privatisation of industry and business - Deregulation, Transport → Removal of state-controlled marketing boards - Encouragement of export crops, Impact on rural-urban terms of trade → Abolition of currency control - Unimpeded market access to importers |
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impact of structural adjustment on the Global South
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positive
→ Increased inward investment → freed up (some) domestic capital → Reduction/elimination of parallel markets → Encouraged agricultural production negative → Squeeze on urban living standards → Reduction of welfare provision → Reduction of food security because of emphasis on export crops → Widened social inequalities |
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AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome)
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a weakening of the immune system by the human immunodeficiency virus, HIV.
The sufferer loses the ability to fight infection, and may fall victim to illnesses such as pneumonia, diarrhoea, and tumours. Sub-saharan Africa is the most affected area → has just over 10% of the world’s population → more than 60% of all people living with HIV (25.8 million) live there. → numbers are rising: in 1990 <1% adult HIV infection, risen to 25% by 2000 |
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why has Africa been so badly hit by HIV?
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→ governments were slow to respond
→ cultural values religion → bad to use condoms → inoculation campaigns → Made worse by poverty, illiteracy, weak educational and public health systems and the low social status of women. |
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HIV affects on African population
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dramatic change around 10-15 years after people become sexually active
typically half become infected before they turn 25, acquiring AIDS and dying before 35 → get population chimney rather than a pyramid |
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HIV affects on African population
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Incidence among women growing faster than among men
1/100 15-19 year olds in South Africa will be infected each year 6/100 15-19 year old females Poor parents encourage early marriage, but once married → vulnerable to husband’s partners → vulnerable to maternal mortality → more likely to have unprotected sex |
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HIV affects on African population
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→ many children cannot attend school
need to stay at home and look after sick parents or go and make money and Teachers are also getting AIDS → agriculture important to large number of people (subsistence), they may not be able to sell crops at market or may not produce enough for household survival by making people poorer, it makes populations more vulnerable to the spread of HIV → business employees are worried that they wont be treated the same and some may be unable to work |
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HIV affects on African population
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→ security and war
During armed conflict, people often face displacement and human rights abuses, including sexual violence and are left in conditions of poverty and powerlessness that might force some individuals to sell sex to survive. Infrastructure may be destroyed, and prevention and curative health services disrupted. Such conditions put populations at increased risk of HIV infection → Women and children are especially vulnerable. Civil and international conflicts help spread HIV as populations are destabilized, and armies move across new territories. |
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nation state
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nation and state overlap perfectly within the same geographical territory
Modernity’s ideal BUT usually there is no overlap States may contain several nations: hence conflict and/or ‘separatist’ ambitions ‘National’ groupings may stretch/leak across state boundaries Dominant ‘national’ groupings in a state may seek to ‘purify’ it of other ‘national’ groupings = ‘ethnic cleansing’ |
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state, nation + super-state
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state → a nation or territory considered as an organized political community under one government
nation → a large body of people united by common descent, history, culture, or language, inhabiting a particular state or territory super state → an agglomeration of nations, often linguistically and ethnically diverse, under a single political-administrative structure |
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Functional ecology - reasons to adapt
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→ species adapt in order to reduce competition:
adapt to eat specific foods and live in certain places different from the others and to be more efficient that others → environmental stress: withstand extreames, eg coastal habitat – high salt, strong winds, waves, tolerance of disturbance. some habitats change and move, have to be able to cope with this - eg sand dunes → generalist: some species adapt to cope with a wide variety of conditions |
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ecosystem
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a biological community of interacting organisms and their physical environment.
→ A system a group of measurable elements that interact causally and have a boundary → we often understand the inputs and can see the outputs but we dont understand what goes on in between a 'black box system', systems can be open or closed → open – where input+output come from without the system → closed – where the input + output are contained within the system |
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energy flows
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Sun → Producers → Consumers → Decomposers → Inorganic Nutrient Pool → Producers: this cycle continues and energy is release at each stage
→ Energy is stored in fossil fuels → There are more Primary producers (plants etc) than Tertiary Consumers (Top Carnivores) → Most of the energy is at the lower levels of the Trophic System, in plants. → GPP – gross primary productivity: total energy produced by plant, alters with environments → NPP – net primary productivity: amount of energy stored in tissue, available for next trophic level |
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food chains + webs
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A series of organisms each dependent on the next as a source of food
relationships between living things and the movement of energy through consumption can be complex → many animals consume many different things |
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essential nutrients
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Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen are the main, most important, but we need many more nutrients in order to be healthy and grow
without essential nutrients we are susceptible to disease, however, too much of some nutrients can also be damaging elements are recycled throughout the system -Biogeochemical Cycle nutrients move through reservoirs: living things, oceans, rocks, soil... some cycles are over a much longer timescale than others there are many processes within the cycle: eg decomposition, abscission (shedding), death, mineralisation, consumption |
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primary productivity
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the production of organic compounds from atmospheric or aquatic carbon dioxide. It may occur through the process of photosynthesis, using light as a source of energy, or chemosynthesis, using the oxidation or reduction of chemical compounds as a source of energy. Almost all life on earth is directly or indirectly reliant on primary production
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salt marsh
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An area of coastal grassland that is regularly flooded by seawater
→ almost permanently wet → deposit for sediment – plants trap + bind sediment → vegetated → within tidal limits, found in bays and inlets Salt marshes play a large role in the aquatic food web delivery of nutrients to coastal waters. They also support terrestrial animals. |
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plant adaption + sediment trapping in salt marshes
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sedimentation
→ plants trap sediment washed up by tides → dead plants acts as an insitu source of sediment plant adaption examples → grooves in leaves help trap sediment → long leaves help reduct mechanical damage → cope with large quanities of salt → some plants can adjust growing rates → sturdy roots |
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environmental degradation
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desertification
increased soil erosion invasive species (e.g humans) air and water pollution water scarcity biodiversity reduction climate change … |
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conservation
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protect from harm, destruction or waste
greatest good for greatest number for longest time principles of biological conservation → diversity of ecosystems should be preserved → untimely extinctions should be prevented → ecological complexity should be maintained → evolution should continue → biological diversity has intrinsic value |
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modern conservation debate
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→ nature protectionists
conservation scientists who aim to preserve protected areas and protect biodiversity → social conservationists environmentally orientated social scientists who view construction efferts as a way to address social, cultural and political issues such as poverty (Miller et al 2010) |
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how to conserve - In/ex situ
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In-situ
→ protecting an endangered plant/animal in it's natural habitat → protecting or cleaning the habitat → protected areas ex-situ → species is removed from its natural environment and cultivated elsewhere → zoo breeding → reintroducing species |
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how to conserve - protected areas
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a clearly defined geograhical space which is recognised, dedicated and managed... to achieve the long-term conservation if nature (Dudley 2008)
species → focus on protecting a specific species in the hope that an entire ecosystem will be protected ecosystem → protect the whole biological community hotspot → protect areas of high biodiversity wilderness → protecting areas with minimal human interference to demonstrate what natural communities should look like |
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how to conserve - flagship and keystone species
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→ flagship species
protection of charismatic species with strong and wide-spread appeal a cute species which we may sympathise and donate money to money can be used to save whole ecosystems → keystone species 'a species wholes impacts on its community or ecosystem are large' (Newman 200) |
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migration
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Movement of humans 'from daily commuting at one end of the spectrum to permanent emigration at the other' – Khalid Koser 2005
→ can be international or intra-national (local) → global population thought to be more than 7 billion, populations are constantly changing - both numerically and physically migration can be a key social concern in a society |
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Asylum seeker
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“someone seeking protection under the terms of 1951 United Nations Convention to the Status of Refugees” - Koser 2005
choice of destination → colonial bonds → existing communities of compatriots → knowledge of the language → smugglers and traffickers |
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refugee
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someone who is scared of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion and is outside the country of their origin. Someone who's movement has been enforces
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illegal immigrant
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entering a country illegally without passing through legal checkpoints
could enter a country legally for a limited period of time but stay illegally past their allowed time a legal resident involved in illegal activities becomes a illegal immigrant |
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Migrant types + destination states
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Distinction Between Migrants
→ voluntary/involuntary → economic/political movement to economic opportunity, better standard of living movement enforced by political powers because of prejudice → legal/illegal Destination States popular places where many people wish to live: such as UK |
