Geo401 Lab Midterm

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Tectonism

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Large-scale movements and deformation of Earth's crust and lithosphere

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Lithospheric Plates

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Plates of lithosphere

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Plate Tectonics Model

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A Model of global tectonics

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Divergent Boundaries

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Plates are formed

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Convergent Boundaries

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Plates are destroyed

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Transform Fault Boundaries

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Plates slide past one another and are neither created nor destroyed

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Minerals

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inorganic, naturally occurring substances that have a characteristic chemical composition, distinctive physical properties, and crystalline structure

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Crystalline Structure

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An orderly 3-D arrangement of atoms or molecules and materials with crystalline structure form crystals

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Mineraloids

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Minerals that do ot have crystalline structure and never form crystals

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Rocks

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Aggregates of one or more minerals

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Rock-Forming Minerals

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The main minerals observed in rocks

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Industrial Minerals

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the main minerals used to manufacture physical materials of industrialized societies

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Biochemical Minerals

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can be manufactured by organisms (ex: aragonite)

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Seven Properties Used to Identify Minerals & Their Uses

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1.Color
2.Crystal Form
3.Luster
4.Hardness
5.Streak
6.Cleavage
7.Fracture

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Color Of A Mineral

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Easiest to notice, should not be the only property used to identify a mineral

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Clarity of Color

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1.Trasparent (clear and see-through like window glass)
2.Translucent (Foggy like looking through a steamed-up shower door)
3.Opaque (Impervious to light like concrete and metals)

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Crystal Form Of A Mineral

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(Mineral's Habit)

If a perfect or strong crystal form (geometric shape-cubes, pyramids, prisms, etc.) is present, this is a good identification property.

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Luster Of A Mineral

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Description of how light reflects from the surface of a mineral

2 Types-Metallic, Nonmetallic

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Metallic Luster

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Reflect light just like familiar metal objects

Silvery, gold, brassy, or coppery sheen

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Nonmetallic Luster

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Vitreous, Waxy, Pearly, Satiny, Earthy, Greasy, or Porcelaneous

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Vitreous Luster

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resembling the luster of freshly broken glass or a glossy photograph

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Waxy Luster

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resembling the luster of a candle

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Pearly Luster

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resembling the luster of a pearl

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Satiny Luster

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resembling the luster of satin or silk cloth

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Earthy Luster

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lacking reflection, completely dull, like dry soil

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Greasy Luster

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rsembling the luster of grease, oily

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Porcelaneous

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resembling the luster of porcelain (translucent white ceramic ware)

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Hardness Of A Mineral

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a measure of resistance to scratching

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Moh's Scale of Hardness

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10-Diamond
9-Corundum
8-Topaz
7-Quartz
6.5-Streak Plate
6-Orthoclase Feldspar
5.5-Glass, Masonry Nail, Knife
5-Apatite
4.5-Wire (iron) Nail
4-Fluorite
3.5-Copper Wire or Coin
3-Calcite
2.5-Fingernail
2-Gypsum
1-Talc

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Hard Minerals

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Scratch Glass, cannot be scratched with a knife blade or masonry nail (or glass)

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Soft Minerals

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will not scratch glass, can be scratched with a knife blade or masonry nail (or glass)

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Streak Of A Mineral

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the color of a substance after it hsas been ground or scratched to make a fine powder

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Cleavage Of A Mineral

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the tendency of some minerals to break along flat, parallel surfaces (cleavage planes) like the flat surfaces in a sliced loaf of bread

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Fracture Of A Mineral

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any break ina mineral that does not occur along a cleavage plane

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Excellent Cleavage

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reflects light in one direction from a set of obvious, large, flat, and even surfaces

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Good Cleavage

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reflects light in one direction from a set of many small, obvious, flat, but uneven surfaces

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Poor Cleavage

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reflects light from a set of small, flat, uneven surfaces that are inconspicuous compared to the fracture surfaces

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No Cleavage

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does not break along any truly flat surfaces (even though some may be nearly flat but not parallel)

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Quartz (M)

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*No cleavage
*Irregula masses with no flat surfaces; may have conchoidal fracture

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Muscovite, biotite (M)

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*1 Cleavage Direction
*Basal cleavage, splits apart along flat sheets

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Feldspar, pyroxene (M)

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*2 Cleavage Directions @ 90
*Elongated form with rectangular cross sections (pisms) and parts of such forms

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Amphibole (M)

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*2 Cleavage Directions no @ 90
*Elongated form with parallelogram cross sections (prisms) and parts of such forms

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Halite, galena (M)

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*3 Cleavage Directions @ 90
*Cubic cleavage; Shapes made of cubes and parts of cubes

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Calcite, dolomite (M)

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*3 Cleavage Directions not @90
*Rhombohedral cleavage; shapes made of rhombohedrons and parts of rhombohedrons

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Fluorite (M)

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*4 Cleavage Directions
*Octahedral cleavage; shapes made of octahedrons and parts of octahedrons

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Sphalerite (M)

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*6 Cleavage Directions
*Shapes made of dodecahedrons and parts of dodecahedrons

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Three Main Rock Groups

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Igneous Rocks
Sedimentary Rocks
Metamorphic Rocks

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Igneoous Rocks

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forms when magma or lava cool to a solid form, either glass or masses of tightly intergrown mineral crystals, in batholiths, dikes, sills, laccoliths, lava glows, and volcanoes

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Sedimentary Rocks

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form mostly when chemical residues (rust, clay) and fragments of plants, animals, mineral crystals, or rocks are compressed or naturally cemented together.

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Metamorphic Rocks

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deformed or changed from one form to another by intense heat, itense pressure and/or the action of hot fluids.

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Rock Properties

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Heneral form, color, composition, and texture

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Steps to Identifying Igneous Rocks

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1)Identify rock's color index
2)Look at graining
3)Identify the rock's texture(s)
4)Classify the rock using the flowchart or the expanded classification chart

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Bowens Reaction Series

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as magmas cool, different silicate minerals crystallize in predictable series that are often summarized here

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Chemical Weathering

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the decomposition or dissolution of Earth materials

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Physical (mechanical) Weathering

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the cracking, scratching, crushing, abrasion, or other physical distintegration of Earth materials

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Sediments

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loose grains and chemical residues of rocks, minerals, plants, or animals

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Aqueous Solutions

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mixtures of water and other chemicals formed by the dissolution and chemical decay of rocky or organic materials

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Grain Sizes

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Gravel, Sand, Silt, Clay

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Gravel

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includes grains larger than 2mm in diameter

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Sand

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includes grains from 1/16mm to 2mm in diameter

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Silt

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includes grains from 1/256mm to 1/16mm in diameter

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Clay

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includes grains less than 1/256mm diameter

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Classifying Sedimentary Rocks

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1)Determine and record the rock's general composition
2)Record a description of the rock's texture(s)
3)Determine the name of the sedimentary rock by categorizing the rock from left to right across the chart
4)After you have named the rock, then you can use information from Steps 1 and 2 to infer the origin of the rock

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Contact Metamorphism

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occurs locally, adjacent to igneous intrusions and along fractures that are in contact with watery hot (hydrothermal) fluids

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Regional Metamorphism

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occurs over very large areas regions) such as deep within the cores of rising mountain ranges and generally is accompanied by folding of rock layers

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Minerological Composition

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a description of the kinds and relative abundances of mineral crystals that comprise the rock

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Recrystalization

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a process whereby small crystals of one mineral will slowly convert to fewer larger crystals of the same mineral will slowly convert to fewer, larger crystals of the same mineral without melting of the rock

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Neomorphism

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one way that mineralogical composition actually changes during metamorphism

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Metasomatism

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chemicals are added or lost

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Foiliated Metamorphic Rocks

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exhibit foilations

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Foiliation

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layering and parallel alignment of platy (flat) mineral crystals, such as micas

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Slaty Rock Cleavage

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a very flat foliation developed along flat, parallel, closely spaced shear planes in tighlty folded clay-or mica-rich rocks

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Phyllite Texture

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a wavy and/or wrinkled foliation of fine-grained platy minerals that gives the rock a satiny or metallic luster

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Schistosity

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A scaly, glittery layering of visible platy minerals and/or linear alignment of long prismatic crystals

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Gneissic Banding

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alternating layers or lenses of light and dark medium-to coarse-grained minerals

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Nonfoliated Metamorphic Rocks

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have no obvious layering, although they may exhibit stretchd fossils or long, prismatic crystals, that have grown parallel to the pressure field

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Crystalline Texture (nonfoliated)

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a medium-to-coarse-grained aggregate of intergrown, usually equal-sized visible crystals

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Microcrystalline Texture

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a fine-grained aggregate of intergrown microscopic crystals

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Hornfels

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a nonfoliated metamorphic rock that has a microcrystalline texture

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Sandy Texture

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a medium-to coarse-grained aggregate of fused , sand-sized grains that resembles sandstone

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Glassy Texture

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a homogeneous texture with no visible grains or other structures and breaks along glossy surfaces; said of materials that resemble glass, such as anthracite coal

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Stretched or Sheared Grains

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deformed pebbles, fossils, or mineral crystals that have been stretched out, shortened, or sheared

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Porphyroblastic Texture

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an arrangement of large crystals, called porphyroblasts, set in a finer-grained groundmass

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Hydrothermal Veins

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fractures "healed" (filled) by minerals that precipitated rom hydrothermal fluids

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Folds

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bends in rock lyaers that were initially flat, like a folded stack of paper

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Lineations

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lines on rocks at the edges of foliations, shear planes, slaty cleavage, folds, or aligned crystals

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Classification of Metamorphic Rocks

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1)Determine and record the rock's textural features
2)Determine and record the rock's mineralogical composition and/or other distinctive features
3)Recall how you categorized the rock in Steps 1 and 2
4)After determining the metamorphic rock name, find the name of a parent rock (protolith) for that kind of metamorphic rock
5)find out what the rock is commonly used for

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Geological Record

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layers of rock stacked one atop the other like pages in a book

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Fossils

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any evidence of ancient life

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Relative Age Dating

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the process of determining when something formed or happened in relation to other things

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Absolute Age Dating

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the process of determining when something formed or happened in exact units of time such as days, months, or years

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Law of Original Horizontaliy

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sedimentary layers (strata) and lava flows were originally deposited as relatively horizontal sheets, like a layer cake.

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Law of Lateral Continuity

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Lava flows and strata extend laterally in all directions until they thin to nothing (pinch out) or reach the edge of their basin of deposition

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Law of Superposition

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in an undisturbed sequence of strata or lava flows, the oldest layer is at the bottom of the sequence and the youngest is at the top

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Law of Inclusions

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any piece of rock (clast) that has become included in another rock or body of sediment must be older than the rock or sediment into which it has been incorporated

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Law of Cross-Cutting

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any feature that cuts across a rock or body of sediment must be younger than the rock or sediment that it cuts across

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Law of Unconformities

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surfaces called unconformities represent gaps in the geologic record that formed wherever layers were not deposited for a time or else layers were removed by erosion

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Disconformity

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an unconformity between parallel strata or lava flows

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Angular Uncomformity

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an unconformity between two sets of strata that are not parallel to one another

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Noncomformity

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an unconformity between younger sedimentary rocks and subjacent metamorphic or igneous rocks

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Principle of Fossil Succession

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any rock layer contianing a group of fossils can be identified and dated in relation to other layers on the basis of its fossils

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Index Fossils

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organisms whose range zones have been used to represent named divisions of the geological time scale

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Range Zone

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the sequence of strata in which fossils of a particular organism are found