Genetics

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Views on designing a baby

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- shouldn't play around with natures course

- should be up to the parent and if they want to

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Advantages of asexual reproduction

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Completed in short period of time and only one organism is needed

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Disadvantages of asexual reproduction

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No variation and prone to extinction

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Advantages of sexual reproduction

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Unique and has variation

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Disadvantages of sexual reproduction

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2 organisms needed and takes a long time (9 months)

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Testes

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Produces male gametes (sperm) and male sex hormone (testosterone)

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Scrotum

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Protects and keeps the testes outside of the body to maintain the required temperature to suit sperm production

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Epididymis

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Temporary storage of sperms in inactive form

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Sperm Duct (vasdeferens)

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Carry sperm from epididymis to urethra

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Urethra

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Carry urine during urination and semen during ejaculation

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Seminal Vesicle

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Produces lubricating fluid and stores sperms

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Prostate Gland

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Produces lubricating and nourishing fluid

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Penis

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Copulatory (used for sex) organ used for the transfer of sperms into the vagina of the female

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Ovaries

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Produces female gamete (ova, single: ovum) and female sex hormone (oestrogen)

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Oviducts (Fallopian Tubes)

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Site of fertilisation. Carry ovum or fertilised ovum to the uterus

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Uterus

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Site of development of the embryo. Made up of muscle tissue. Protects and nourishes embryo.

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Cervix

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Neck of the uterus, producing mucus which prevents the entry of bacteria into the uterus

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Vagina

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Receives penis during copulation. Sperms are deposited into the vagina during ejaculation.

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Vulva

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Opening of the vagina

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Female problems with conception

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- Hormone imbalance

- Tubal Ovarian

- Cervical

- Unknown

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Male problems with conception

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- Chromosomal

- Varicocele

- Sperm quality

- Infection

- Unknown

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Reproductive technologies that assist with conception

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- Improved timing of intercourse

- IVF treatment (egg taken out of body and baby made out of body)

- IUI treatment (sperm injected into vagina)

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Gene (General Definition)

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a unit of heredity (passing down of acharacteristic from generation to generation) which is transferred from aparent to offspring and is held to determine some characteristic of theoffspring: playing tennis is in my genes.

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Gene (Scientific Definition)

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a distinct sequence of nucleotides forming part of a chromosome, the order of which determines the specific characteristic

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Chromosome

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A threadlike structure of nucleic acids and protein found in thenucleus of most living cells, carrying genetic information in the form ofgenes.

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DNA(deoxyribonucleic acid)

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a self-replicating material which is present in nearly all livingorganisms as the mainly made of chromosomes. It is the carrier of geneticinformation.

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What does a gene do?

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Genes tell each of your cells what proteins to make and whento make them.

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What is the relationship between genes, chromosomesand DNA?

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Chromosomes contain the recipe for making a living thing. They are made from strands of DNA. Segments of DNA called genes are the ingredients. Each gene adds a specific protein to the recipe.

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Traits that can be inherited

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Phenotypes:

- Hair/skin/eye colour

- Height

- Body shape (mouth, nose, ears)

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How are traits inherited on a cellular level?

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Occurs in Meiosis:

Chromosomes containing DNA containing genes from sperm and eggcombine to make new organism. New organism inherits genesfrom the mother and father gametes.

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Heritable

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(of acharacteristic) transmissible from parent to offspring. intelligence is tosome degree heritable.

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Trait

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adistinguishing quality or characteristic, typically one belonging to a person:the traditionally British trait of self-denigration.

agenetically determined characteristic. breeders were installing some traitthat allowed the crop to thrive.

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Genotype

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A set of alleles that determines the expression of a particular characteristic or trait (phenotype).

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Phenotype

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the set of observablecharacteristics of an individual resulting from the interaction of its genotypewith the environment.

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Dominant

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relating to or denoting heritablecharacteristics which are controlled by genes that are expressed in offspringeven when inherited from only one parent. it is the dominant gene causingpolydactyly. the mutant allele is dominant to the wild type. Oftencontrasted with recessive.

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Recessive

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relating toor denoting heritable characteristics controlled by genes which are expressedin offspring only when inherited from both parents. Often contrasted with dominant.

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Allele

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pairs or series of genes on a chromosome that determine the hereditary characteristics. An example of an allele is the gene that determines hair colour.

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Karyotype

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thenumber and visual appearance of the chromosomes in the cell nuclei of anorganism or species.

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Genetic diseases

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- Down Syndrome

- Cystic Fibrosis

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Sex-linked genetic diseases

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- Duchenne muscular dystrophy, a progressivedegeneration of muscle tissue

- Hemophilia, which is a deficiency in one ofseveral blood-clotting factors and causes uncontrollable bleeding

- Fragile-X syndrome, a problem witih theFMR1 gene on the X chromosome, which can cause mental retardation

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What does DNA look like?

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A DNA molecule is a double helix, a structure that looks muchlike a ladder twisted into a spiral.

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What does DNA do?

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DNAcontains instructions needed to make the proteins and molecules essential forour growth, development and health. It is the carrier of genetic information.

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What parts make up DNA?

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DNA is made of a series ofnucleotides. Each nucleotide is itself made up of three primary components: a nitrogenousbase, a carbon-based sugar molecule called deoxyribose,and a phosphorus-containing region known as a phosphate group attachedto the sugar molecule. There are four different DNA nucleotides, each definedby a specific nitrogenous base: adenine (often abbreviated"A" in science writing), thymine (abbreviated"T"), guanine (abbreviated "G"), and cytosine (abbreviated"C").

Basically:Nucleotide (Nitrogenousbase [adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine] --> sugar group --> phosphate group)

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Which bases go together?

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Adenine - Thymine

Cytosine - Guanine

The two stick letters gotogether A & T The two circle letters gotogether C & G

OR…

Remember COLGATE (like the toothpaste) and the order theletters are

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Mitosis Facts

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- BodyCells (Somatic) [remember somatic and mitosis both have 'T']

- Have46 chromosomes in each cell (diploid)

- Makesnew body cells for growth and repair

- Asexualreproduction

- Newcells called ‘Daughter’ cells

- 2identical daughter cells

- Have46 chromosomes (diploid)

- ONEcell division

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Process of Mitosis

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1) Prophase (chromosomes are visible as they condenseand organise themselves)

2) Metaphase (chromosomes line up in the MIDDLE ofthe cell opposite their pair)

3) Anaphase (chromosomes move AWAY from eachother to the “poles” of the cell)

4) Telophase (TWO nuclei form to make newcells)

5) After telophase, the cell dividescompletely. This process is called ‘cytokinesis’.

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Meiosis Facts

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- Sexcells (gametes)

- Have23 chromosomes so after fertilisation there are 46

- TWOcell divisions

- Haploidcells produced (23 chromosomes)

- Sperm(male)

- Eggs/Ova(female)

- Eachcell is unique

- 4daughter cells

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Meiosis Process

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1) Prophase 1 (chromosomes condense and thicken. Theyline up with their pair, which is called a ‘homologous’ pair. When theyline up, they swap some genetic information. This is called ‘crossing over’.This makes new types of chromosomes.

2) Metaphase 1 (chromosomes line up in middle ofcell)

3) Anaphase 1 (chromosomes move away from eachother to the ‘poles’ of the cell)

4) Telophase 1 (cell spreads and nuclear membraneforms)

5) After telophase, the now diploid cell (46)containing paired chromosomes from male and female, splits to create 2 haploid cells(23) with paired chromosomes from male and female. This is called cytokinesis.

6) Prophase 2 (no homologous pairs or crossing over)

7) Metaphase 2 (line up in middle of cell withsister chromatids)

8) Anaphase 2 (sister chromatids are pulled away fromeach other)

9) Telophase 2 (nuclear membrane forms)

10) Cytokinesis (4 unique daughter cells form)

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Mutation

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the changing of the structure of a gene, resulting in a variant formwhich may be transmitted to subsequent generations, caused by the alteration ofsingle base units in DNA, or the deletion, insertion, or rearrangement oflarger sections of genes or chromosomes.

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How does a mutation occur?

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- Spontaneously/randomlyduring cell division

- Because of radiation, viruses or chemicals

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Mutations: detrimental or beneficial?

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Mutationscan be beneficial such as adapting to a new environment or detrimental such asgenetic disorders like haemophilia

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Mutations vs. Adaptations

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An adaptation is a mutation, or genetic change, that helps anorganism, such as a plant or animal, survive in its environment. Due to thehelpful nature of the mutation, it is passed down from one generation to thenext.

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Technology & Biotechnology

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Technology has helped advance our understanding and skill inbiotechnology. Through technology we have been able to help cure diseases andtreat the symptoms of a variety diseases. Examples include in vitrofertilisation which aid in the reproduction of infertile parents.

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Stem Cells

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- Potential to develop into many different cell types

- When a stem cell divides, each new cell has the potential to remain a stem cell or become a more specialised cell

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