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134 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is genetics?
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The biology of heredity
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What is molecular genetics?
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The technique of removing, modifying, or adding genes to a DNA molecule in order to change the information it contains
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Biotechnology
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The use of living organisms or coponents of living organisms to solve problems and to make useful products
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What do humans, chimps, bonobos and gorillas have in common?
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A common ancestor
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Denmark
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Has the highest level of evolution belief
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An adenine in one of the DNA strands of the double helix is always opposite a blank
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Thymine
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A guanin is always opposite of
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a cytosine
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Because the two stands are complementary, during DNA replication...
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each stand can serve as a template
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Enzymes called DNA polymerases are responsible for...
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Synthesizing new DNA
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RNA polymerases are the enzymes responsible for
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Transcribing DNA into Messenger RNA
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The 4 bases of RNA?
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U, C, A, G
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A codon has how many letters?
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3
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Each codon specifies an?
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Amino acid
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Mutations are?
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Heritable changes caused by alterations in the nucleotide sequence in DNA
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Chromosomal mutations
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Can cause some cancers, and are letal in the germ line (egg, sperm or zygote)
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Point mutations
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Mutation of a single gene, one allele becomes another because of small alterations in a nucleotide sequence
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Base Substituion mutations
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changes in nucleotide sequence that substitute one base for another
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Regarding Base substituation mustation, what is a samesense
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the mutation has no effect on the amino acid sequence - silent mutation
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Regarding Base substituation mustation, what is a missense
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One amino acid is replaced by a different amino acid
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Regarding Base substituation mustation, what is a nonsense
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an amino acid is replaced by a "stop" codon so that the truncated protein is formed
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Insertion or deletion of one or two bases causes a?
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Frameshift mutation
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The structure of DNA and the genetic code are univeral for all living organims? Why is this cool?
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Cause it allows for a piece of DNA to be easily transplanted from one organism to antoerh
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The enzymes that bacteria use to copy, cut, and splice their own DNA can be
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Purified and used to splie together news combinations of DNA pieces, called recombiant DNA
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Circular pieces of DNA in bacteria (plasmids) can be copied many times, this is called?
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Replication
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Restriction Enzymes
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Cut DNA in a site=specific and reproductable manner to yield discrete fragments
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Noncoding DNA
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Introns and DNA between genes
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mRNA only contains...
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Codon regions - if we reverse mRNA we only get the protein coding genes
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Human genone has how many pairs or chromosomes?
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23
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Chromosomes numbered 1-22 are called?
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Autosomes
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X and Y chromosomes are the
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Sex Chromosomes
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XX
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Female
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XY
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Male
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Meiosis
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When the cell spilts and gets %50 from the sperm and egg
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DNA
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Encodes geners, the instructions needed to make RNA and proteins - transcrbied into RNA
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mRNA
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The template for the production of proteins, the molecules that build and comprise structures and perfrom enzymatic reactions
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Substituion
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Changing one letter to another, causeing the protein to change
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Deletion
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Deleting the codon, thus deleting the protein
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Insertion
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Adding more letters, and adding another protein
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Frameshift
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taking out one letter, which offsets everything else
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Inversion
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switching the letters around, changing the protein
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Nonsense mutation
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A single base pair substituion that permaturely codes for a stop codon
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Missense mutations
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Result in teh substituion of one amino acid for another
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Null mutations
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Result in the loss of a protein product from a gene
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Repetitive elements
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Repeated sequences are found throughout the genone
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Polymerase Chain Reaction
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Amplifies specific regions of DNA - has made it possible to produce many copies of a specific DNA sequence from small amouts of materials
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How is the PCR done?
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DNA has to be signle standed, so it has to be denatured (high temps for 30 seconds), then DNA primers anneal to the specific region on the template DNA, then the polymerase extends the primers with the nucleotude bases, generating a new double stand of template DNA. Done 35 times
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Ingredients in PCR
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Heat
Template DNA Primer molecules - usually 18-30 bases in length, complementary to the sequence you want to copy Extra nucleotide based A buffer with magnesium |
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Advantages of PCR?
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Cheaper, simple and requires less skill, requires very little template DNA, wide range of verstaile techniques
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Example of insect resitance
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BT (bacillus thuringienses toxin)
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Herbicide tolerant
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73% of GM crops, such as soybeans, corn, canola, cotton
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These BT and HT changes work cause they transcribe a
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transgene
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B-carotene
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The stuff they put in the vitamin rich rice
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Cloning
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Asexual reproduction that results in a genetically identical organism
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Embryo Spittling
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Spltting the embryo and putting half in a cell with no nucleus
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Nuclear Transfer
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Once intital egg cell has split, they take 4 of the cells and put them in nucleus empty cells, and nuclear transfer them
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In adults - nuclear transfer
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Has to use somatic cells, put them in cell culture, nuclear tranfer then embryo transfer
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Nuclear transfer
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Tranfers of a cell(nucleus) into an egg cytoplasm - DNA is removed from an egg, then donor cell is inserted into enucleated egg, then en electric charge is applied using microelectrodes causeing them to fuse in culture
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how did scientists insure that the tomato cells that were grown into plants in fact contained the Flavr Savr gene?
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the put Kanamycin into the growth medium, whcih killed any non-flavsavr tomato
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Does Martineau agree or disagree with this conclusion? Why or why not?
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HE thinks that each genetically engineered plant shoudl be taken by a case by case basis, plus this process was safer than most others
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What does no-till farming mean? What are the benefits of no-till farming? How and why are genetically modified crops often necessary for no-till farming?
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Not ploughing, cheaper, doesn't release toxins into the air, sil gets healthier. Only genetically modified crops can be used cause they are resistant to weeds
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What are some risks of biotechnology noted in this paper?
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Resistance spreading to the weeds, pollon travels very far
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When and where did the Green Revolution begin according to this interview? Why must it continue into this century?
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In mexico to increase the wheat production - high yield plants made - Global hunger is still a threat
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How does biotech decrease environmental impact of food production compared to conventional farming, according to Borlaug?
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Technology is more precise and less time consuming, higher yields, less land
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What does Borlaug cite as one of the biggest problems with biotech today, in spite of its great potential?
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Inaccesability in poor countries
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How did the Green Revolution affect the many rice varieties of India, according to this article?
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Varity went down
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What is “Miracle Rice” and why was it created?
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Vitamin A - to prevent blindness
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What does she argue are the problems with vitamin A rice?
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Doesn't meet percent daily intake, can't be absorbed by the body, rice ends up being owned by cooporations, not the people
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Who does Shiva say that rice in Asia must be owned and controlled by? Why?
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The small farmers - diversity, meaning
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According to a quote by Sharma, why does genetic modification of crops succeed where conventional breeding cannot?
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Produces traits such as disease resistance and drought tolerance
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What is Bt cotton? What are its advantages according to this article?
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higher yield
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What is Sahai’s major objection to India’s embracing GM? How is this similar to Shiva’s objection to GM rice in the previous reading?
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it will hand over control of India's food supply to multinational companies that are motivated by profit
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What did Monsanto accuse Percy Schmeiser of doing? What was the result?
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that he stole GM seeds - got angry, sued
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Give some examples of how different biotechnologies have been incorporated into livestock or other animal breeding programs.
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Artifical insemination, sire-testing, DNA-based marker-assisted selection of superior animals
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What are some scientific (not social/moral) problems with cloning?
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high rates of pregrancy loss, abnormtalities - caused by incorrect reprogramming of the transferred nuclear DNA
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Describe briefly how the process of cloning works.
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Remove nucleus from egg, then they fuse it with a somatic cell contraining the nucleus and genetic material from another cell by the appliocation of an electrical charge. put in culture, then put in mommy
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What are some agricultural applications of genetic engineering of animals?
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good for valuable animals, , make many sires, produce aniamls well suited to envirnoment, increase milk production
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List an example of each of the following categories of concerns associated with animal biotechnology: environmental, animal welfare, and ethical.
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Envirnomental- genes could spread to wild type
Animal welfare - unhealthy offspring, high death rates Ethical Should we play god? |
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According to this article, how is the proposed transgenic salmon created? What is the difference between it and non-genetically altered salmon?
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Growht hormone and promoter - makes them grow all seasons
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What are some fears about this transgenic salmon?
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Escape, drive down salmon prices, farmers have to use hormones to keep up with competition
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What are some of their beliefs? How do they fit into the issue of human cloning?
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Aliens, biotechnology, eternal life
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Based on this article, what are three groups of people might be interested in cloning?
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People who can't have kids, people who lost a child, a spectacular person who should live on forever
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What does “chimera” mean?
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part human animals
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What does this article suggest is the least controversial use of chimeras? Give some examples of this use.
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human replacement organs - grown in pigs
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Outlaw cloning, why?
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Progressive - market for eggs? Hormone treatment for it?- dictating the outcome of the child?
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According to this fact sheet, what are some of the greatest impacts of having the sequence?
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Disease research - new approach to biological research
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What is the DNA constancy hypothesis?
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The amount of DNA per chromosome set within an individual prganism is constant, and the DNA content of a single set of chromosomes is largely invariant among members of the same species
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What is the C-value paradox? What do we know now that clears up this so-called paradox?
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Amount of DNA in a haploid chromosome - happens because of repeated DNA
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How did we get so much non-coding DNA in our genomes?
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Slefish DNA, evolution
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Approximately what percentage of the human genome contains protein-coding genes?
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1.5%
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What is Comparative Genomics? What are some of its goals?
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How the functions of human genes and other DNA regions are revealed by studying their parallels in nonhumans - Complete sequence of fruitfly, roundworm, mouse
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What is Functional Genomics? What are some of its goals?
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understanding the functions of genes and other parts of the genone - Goals: to generate full-lenght cDNA clones, improve methods, develop technology for large-scale protein analyses
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What is convergent evolution?
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Two or more populations acquiring the same trait independently
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Briefly explain the genetics behind lactose tolerance/intolerance.
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A mutation makes it so people can longer drink milk
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Somatic cell nuclear transfer
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Reuires reprogramming of nucleus from a mature cell
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Diseases can be caused by
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Loss of gene function by mutation in either the exon (cystic fibrosis) or the regulatory region (fragile X)
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Diseases can be caused by
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a gain of gene function (huntington's)
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Diseases can be caused by
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Modictation of gene function (sickle cell)
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Phenylketonuria
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Autosomal recessive - 380 mutations in phenyalanine hydroxylase
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Sickle Cell Enemia
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Autosomal recessive - single base change in DNA leading to one amino acid change
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Cystic Fibrosis
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Autosomal recessive - many mutations - in gene for ion transport across membranes
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Tay Sach's
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Autosomal recessive - Hexosaminidase A deficiency
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Fragile X
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X-linked - Triplete expansion repeats
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Huntington's
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Autosomal Dominant - CAG repeats in huntingtion protein
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What are the four criteria required to receive a patent?
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Useful, novel, nonobvious, describe in detail
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The Council for Responsible Genetics is a NGO, (a non-governmental organization) that opposes US government policy regarding patents. What are their major arguments?
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Patents on life hinder research, indigenous economies, and genetic diversity
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cDNA
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laborator made version of a gene that contains only it's information rich (exon) regions
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What are the benefits of pharmacolgenomics?
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More powerful medicines, better safer drugs, more accurate ways to give out drug dosages, advanced screenings for diseases, better vacines, lower cost of health case
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Barriers to pharmacolgenomics?
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Complex to find gene variations that affect drug response, limited drug alternatives, expensive for drug companies, educating health care providers
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Mom has two normal alleles, father has hemophilia
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All daughters are carriers, all sons are normal
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Given the example two hypothetical children, one boy and one girl, of a mother that has hemophilia and a father that does not , what are the chances that each child will have hemophilia? What are the chances that each child will be a carrier of hemophilia?
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.5 daughetrs normal, .5 daughters are carriers, .5 sons are normal, .5 sons are hempophilic
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What is pre-implantation genetic diagnosis (PGD)?
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process in which embryos are created in a test tube and DNA is analyzed before being transferred to uterus
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What are some uses of genetic tests?
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testing for diseases, such as Alzheimer's
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In genetic testing it is important that...
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The person provides consent, privacy is offered, and that we give good information about what the genetic info means
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a ligase
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enzyme that can catalyse the joining of two large molecules by forming a new chemical bond
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a ligase
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enzyme that can catalyse the joining of two large molecules by forming a new chemical bond
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Briefly summarize the experimental evidence that the author uses in this article to support his conclusion that behavior has a biological root
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Behavior often is species specific, Behaviors often breed true, Behaviors change in response to alterations in biological structures or processes, In humans, some behaviors run in families, Behavior has an evolutionary history that persists across related species.
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REtrovrial
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Used for gene theraphy - has an inability to infect nondividing cells, but can be effective long term
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Adenovrial
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Used for gene theraphy - had adverse immunoloical consequences but is easy to grow and is highly effective
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Standard Dogma
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Carlnogens directly alter the DNA sequence of cancer-related genes causing a mutation in tumor suppressor genes and then mutations in oncogenes causes oncoproteins to become hyperactive causing them to grow, a lot
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Modified Dogma
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Something disables one of more genes needed to accurately syntheize or repair the DNA - then as the cell devides random mutations occurs
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Early Instability
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Something silences out one or more master gene, and mistakes occur duing duplication of chromosomes
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All-Aneuploidy
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A mistake during cell division produces aneuploid cells
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Stem Cells
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Unspecialized, can divide and renew themselves, can become specialized
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Humans all orginated in
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Africa
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Skin color is determined by
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melanin - involved in Vitamin D production
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Single Nucleuotide Polymorphisms
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Provide insigh into the history human migration
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To get DNA samples
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DNA extraction -> DNA Quantitation -> PCR Amplification of Multiple STR markers -> Compaire loci
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Gene theraphy
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a technique for correcting defective genes responailb efor disease development
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What are the four approaches identified? (Gene therapy)
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normal gene is inserted, an abnormal gene could be swapped for a normal gene, the abnormal gene could be repaired, and regulation of a gene could be altered
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4 viruses used for gene theraphy
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Retroviruses, Adenoviruses, Adeno-associated viruses, Herpes simplex viruses
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Problems with gene theraphy
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Short-lived; immune responces; problems with the viral vectors; multigene disorder - most diseases caused by multiple mutations
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List and give a specific example of four ethical issues raised by this case - Jesse Galager
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Gene theraphy isn't safe, unsure of consequences, may not be in teh right state of mind to comply, corportate interests,
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Stem cells can come from
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Embryos, umbilical cords, adult tissue, cadavers
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Examples of stem cell therapy
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Skin replacement, brain cell transplant
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