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184 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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-the basic building block of all matter in the universe
-made up of three main components: protons, neutrons, and electrons |
Atom
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-sum of the protons and neutrons in an element, often denoted by the letter A
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Mass Number (A)
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-the third quantum number
-designated by ml, it describes a particular orbital within a subshell where an electron is very likely to be found -the possible values for ml are integers in the -l to l range, including 0 |
Magnetic Quantum Number
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-a set of spectral lines that appear in the UV region when a hydrogen atom undergoes a transition from energy levels n > 1 to n = 1
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Lyman series
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-atoms that share the same atomic number (Z) but have a different number of neutrons
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Isotopes
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-two different elements that share the same electronic configuration (e.g., K+ and Ar)
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Isoelectronic
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-electrons will first fill equal-energy orbitals of a subshell unpaired and with parallel spins before being coupled with other electrons of opposite spins in the same orbital
-this method of maximizing the number of half-filled orbitals allows for the most stable distribution of electrons within a subshell |
Hund's Rule
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-the quantum mechanical idea that we cannot measure the exact momentum and position of an orbiting electron simultaneously
-that is, the more accurately we measure an electron's momentum, the less we known about its exact position |
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
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-the patterned order by which electrons fill subshells and energy levels in an atom
-the first number designates the principal quantum number (n); the letter s,p,d,f, or g- specifies the subshell (l); and the superscript indicates the number of electrons in that subshell |
Electron Configuration
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-a subatomic particle that orbits the nucleus and has a charge of -1
-has a negligible mass and is often denoted by the symbol e- |
Electron
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-an atom or a substance that contains no unpaired electrons and is consequently repelled by a magnet
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Diamagnetic
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-a model of the atom postulating that electrons are located in discrete circular orbits about the nucleus
-in this model, the electrostatic force between the positive nucleus and negative electron acts as the centripetal force keeping the electron in orbit |
Bohr Model
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-a set of spectral lines that appear in the visible light region when a hydrogen atom undergoes a transition from energy levels n >2 to n = 2
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Balmer Series
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-the unit of mass equal to 1/12 the mass (in grams) of a carbon-12 atoms;
-approximately equal to the mass of a proton |
Atomic Mass Unit
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-the discontinuous line spectra of light produced when excited atoms returm to their ground state and emit photons of a certain frequency
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Atomic Emission Spectra
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-the spectrum of certain absorbed wavelengths of light corresponding to an atom's spectrum of emitted frequencies
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Atomic Absorption Spectrum
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-the number of protons in an element, often denoted by the letter Z
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Atomic Number (Z)
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-the average mass, measured in amu, of all the isotopes of a given element as they occur naturally
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Atomic Weight
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-electrons fill an atom in order of increasing energy level
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Aufbau Principle
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-the second quantum number
-designated by the letter l, it means "angular momentum" and refers to the subshells within each principle quantum energy level -l can take on the value of an integer in the 0 to n - 1 range |
Azimuthal Quantum Number
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-a subatomic particle with zero electric charge that is slightly heavier than a proton
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Neutron
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-the dense, positively charged center of an atom, which contains its protons and neutrons
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Nucleus
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-a three dimensional region about the nucleus where a rapidly orbiting electron is likely to be found
-each orbital has a unique assignment of values for the n, l, and ml quantum numbers |
Orbital
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-an atom or a substance that contains unpaired electrons and is consequently attracted by a magnet
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Paramagnetic
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-a set of spectral lines resulting when a hydrogen atom undergoes a transition from energy levels n > 4 to n = 3
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Paschen Series
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-no two electrons in an atom can have the same set of four quantum number values
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Pauli Exclusion Principle
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-a set of spectral lines resulting when a hydrogen atom undergoes a transition from energy levels n > 5 to n = 5
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Pfund series
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-a unit of energy in the form of light equal to hf, where h is Planck's constant and f is the frequency or radiation
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Photon
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-the first quantum number
-designated by the letter n, it takes on any positive integer value and describes an electron's energy level -an electron with a higher n value is at a higher energy state |
Principle Quantum Number
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- a subatomic particle with a charge of +1 and mass of 1.0073 amu
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Proton
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-study of physics at the atomic level where energy is quantized in discrete, rather than continuous, levels
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Quantum Mechanics
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-a set of four numbers used to describe an electron's energy state (position and energy)
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Quantum Numbers
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-the fourth quantum number
-designated by ms, it specifies an electron's intrinsic spin value or angular momentum in an orbital -since there can be no more than two electrons per orbital, the value of ms can only be +1/2 or -1/2 |
Spin Quantum Number
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-the electrons occupying the outermost electron shell of an atom that participate in chemical bonds
-atoms with the same number of electrons usually have similar properties |
Valence Electrons
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-the highly reactive elements found in Group IA of the period table, except hydrogen
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Alkali Metals
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-elements found in Group IIA of the periodic table
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Alkaline Earth
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-the distance measured either between the nucleus and outermost electron of an atom or by the separation of the two nuclei in a diatomic element
-decrease from left to right and from bottom to top on the periodic table |
Atomic Radius
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-the resulting positive nuclear charge an outer electron senses after accounting for the shielding effect of inner core electrons
-abbreviated Z eff -increases from left to right and from bottom to top on the periodic table |
Effective Nuclear Charge (Z eff)
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-the energy released when an atom or ion in the gaseous state gains an electron
-increases from left to right and from bottom to top on the periodic table |
Electron Affinity
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-a measure of an atom's ability to pull electron density toward itself when involved in a chemical bond
-increases from left to right and from bottom to top on the periodic table |
Electronegativity
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-an atom or molecule that has an unpaired electron in its outermost shell
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Free Radical
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-elements found in Group VIIA of the periodic table
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Halogens
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-the amount of energy required to remove an electron from orbit about a gaseous atom into free space
-increases from left to right from bottom to top on the periodic table |
Ionizaton Energy
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-B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te, and Po
-have properties that are in between those of metals and non metals |
Metalloids
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-elements that are characteristically electropositive, malleable, and ductile
-these elements tend to be found on the left side of the periodic table, be lustrous, and have relatively low ionization energies and electron affinities |
Metals
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-inert elements naturally existing in a gaseous state that comprise Group VIII of the periodic table
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Noble Gas
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-elements that have characteristically high electronegativity, ionization energy, and electron affinity
-these elements tend to be found on the right side of the periodic table and are poor conductors of electricity |
Nonmetals
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-the elements found in the B Groups of the periodic table
-these elements contain partially filled d subshells |
Transition Elements
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-the energy required to break one mole of a chemical bond; bond enthalpy
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Bond Energy
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-a chemical bond formed when atoms share bonding electron pairs
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Covalent Bond
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-type of intermolecular force in which opposite poles of neighboring dipole molecules are drawn together
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Dipole-Dipole Interactions
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-the product of the amount of partial charge at either end of a molecule's dipole multiplied the distance between them, given by the equation p = qd where q is the partial charge and d is the distance
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Dipole Moment
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-a weak intermolecular force prevalent in nonpolar covalent molecules caused by transient dipole-induced dipole attraction (London Forces)
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Dispersion Forces
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-the charge assigned to an atom in a molecule or a polyatomic ion, calculated by the formula (# valence e-) - (# 1/2 bonding e-) - (#nonbonding e-)
-molecules containing atoms with lower formal charges tend to be more stable than those with higher formal charges |
Formal Charge
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-very strong intermolecular force where a hydrogen covalently bound to an N, O, or F is attracted to another N, O, or F
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Hydrogen Bonding
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-the attractive and repulsive forces between neighboring molecules
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Intermolecular Forces
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-a type of chemical bond in which there is a complete transfer of valence electrons to form positive and negative ions that are subsequently bound by electrostatic forces; strong attractions holding ions together in a compound
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Ionic Bond
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-alternate Lewis structures of the same molecules that show the delocalization of electrons within that molecule
-have the same atomic connectivity but differ in the distribution of electrons |
Resonance Structures
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-a method using lines and dots to represent valence electrons and shared pairs of electrons of atoms, ions, or molecules
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Lewis Structure
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-the region in a molecule where atomic orbitals overlap, resulting in either a stable low-energy bonding orbital or an unstable high-energy antiboding orbital
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Molecular Orbital
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-a type of covalent bond between atoms with the same electronegativities resulting in an even distribution of electron density along the bond
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Nonpolar Covalent Bond
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-a rule stating that atoms- except a few such as Be, H, and B- tend to react in order to form a complete octet of valence electrons
-hydrogen can have a maximum of 2 valence electrons, Be can have 4 valence electrons, and B can have 6 valence electrons |
Octet Rule
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-a type of covalent bond between atoms with different electronegativities that results in an unequal sharing of electron pairs, giving the bond partial positive and negative poles
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Polar Covalent Bond
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-states that the three-dimensional molecular geometry about some central atom is determined by the electronic repulsions between its bonding and nonbonding electron pairs
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Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion theory (VSEPR)
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-a reaction in which two or more reactants combine to form a product (e.g., A + B -> C)
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Combination Reaction
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-a chemical reaction in which one substance breaks down into two substances (e.g., C -> A + B)
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Decomposition Reaction
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-a redox reaction in which the same species is both oxidized and reduced
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Disproportionation
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-a chemcial reaction in which two different compounds exchange an atom or ion to form two new compounds (e.g., AB + CD -> AC + BD); also called a metathesis reaction
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Double Displacement Reaction
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-chemcial formula showing the smallest whole-number ratio of atoms in a compound
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Empirical Reaction
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-the sum of all the masses (in amu) present in one molecule of a molecular compound
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Formula Weight
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-the reactant of a chemical equation that, given nonstoichiometric amounts, determines the amount of product that can form, the reactant that runs out first
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Limiting Reagent
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-a chemical formula showing the actual number of atoms present in a certain compount
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Molecular Formula
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-the smallest unit of a substance, composed of two or more atoms joined in covalent bonds, that still retains all the chemical properties of that substance
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Molecule
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-a representation of a displacement reaction showing only the reactive species and omitting the spectator ions
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Net Ionic Equation
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-the percentages by mass (in amu) of the elements making up a compound
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Percent Composition
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-a ratio (calculated as a percentage) of the actual mass of product yielded to the theoretical yield of product mass
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Percent Yield
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-a chemical reaction in which an atom or ion of one compound is replaced by another atom or ion (e.g., A + BC -> B + AC)
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Single Displacement Reaction
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-the expected amount of product yielded in a reaction according to reactants' stoichiometry
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Theoretical Yield
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-often denoted by Ea, it is the energy barrier that must be overcome for reaction to proceed
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Activation Energy
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-the study of reaction rates and the factors that affect them
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Chemical Kinetics
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-theory stating that the rate of a reaction is directly proportional to the number of collisions that take place between reactants per second
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Collision Theory of Chemical Kinetics
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-a dynamic point reached by a reversible reaction in which the rate of the forward reaction is equal to the rate of the reverse reaction
-there is no net change in the concentrations of the products and reactants being formed |
Equilibrium
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-a ratio of the concentrations of the products to the concentrations of the reactants at the point of equilibrium, where each reactant and product in the expression is raised to the power of its stoichiometric coefficient
-commonly denoted by K eq |
Equilibrium Constant
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-when a system in equilibrium is placed under one of several stressors, it will react in order to regain equilibrium
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Le Chatelier Principle
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-the slowest step in a reaction mechanism that determines the overall rate of the reaction
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Rate-Determining Step
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-an experimentally determined mathematical expression showing the rate of a reaction as a function of the concentration of its reactants
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Rate Law
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-a "play-by-play" showing the individual steps of a reaction, including the formation and destruction of any reaction intermediates that may occur
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Reaction Mechanism
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-the sum of the exponents in a rate law, where each exponent provides the order with respect to its reactant
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Reaction Order
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-a ratio of the concentrations of the products to the concentrations of the reactants at any point during the reaction aside from equilibrium, where each reactant and product in the expression is raised to the power of its stoichiometric coefficient
-commonly denoted by Q |
Reaction Quotient
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-the measure of how quickly reactants are consumed and products are formed, commonly expressed in terms of mol L-1 s-1
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Reaction Rate
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-a process that will proceed bidirectionally to form both product and reactant
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Reversible Reaction
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-a high energy complex in which old bonds are partially broken and new bonds are partially formed
-charges existing only prior to or after the formation of the complex are designated as partial charges |
Transition State
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-a process in which no heat is transferred to or from the system by its surroundings
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Adiabatic Process
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-a system that allows for the exchange of energy, but not matter, across its boundaries
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Closed System
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-an apparatus commonly referred to as a bomb calorimeter; used to measure the amount of heat absorbed or released during a reaction
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Constant-Volume Calorimeter
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-a reaction that proceeds with the net absorption of energy (heat) from the surroundings
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Endothermic Reaction
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-the total heat content of a system at a constant pressure, commonly denoted by H
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Enthalpy
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-the chaos or randomness of a system, often denoted by S
-delta S represents the change in the following reaction |
Entropy
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-a reaction that proceeds with the net release of energy (heat) into the surroundings
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Exothermic
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-the energy of a system available to do work
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Gibbs Free Energy
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Gibbs-Helmholtz Equation
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delta G = delta H - TdeltaS
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-a transferable energy, usually in the form of kinetic energy of molecules
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Heat
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-a statement that the enthalpy change of an overall reaction is equal to the sum of the standard heats of formation of the products minus the sum of the standard heats of the formation of the reactants
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Hess' Law
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-a process that occurs at a constant pressure
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Isobaric Process
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-a process in which volume remains constant and no net pressure-volume work is done
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Isochoric Process
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-a system that can exchange neither energy nor matter with its surroundings
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Isolated System
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-a process in which the system either gains or loses energy in order to maintain a constant temperature
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Isothermal Process
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-law stating that energy cannot be created nor destroyed but only transferred and transformed
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Law of Conservation of Energy
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-a system that allows for the exchange of energy and matter across its boundaries
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Open System
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-the amount of heat required to raise one gram of a substance by 1 degree Celsius; heat capacity
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Specific Heat
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-a reaction that will proceed or occur on its own without an input of energy from its surroundings
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Spontaneous Reaction
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-the value of delta G as calculated under standard conditions: at 1 atmosphere (atm) and 0 Kelvin
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Standard Free Energy
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-measure of the heat absorbed or released when a substance is formed from its naturally occurring elements
-often denoted by delta H f |
Standard Heat of Formation
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-the change in enthalpy of a reaction at STP
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Standard Heat of Reaction
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-a function that depends only on the initial and final states of a system, not on the path in between
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State Function
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-the part of the universe under consideration that is separated by some real or imaginary boundary from its surroundings
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System
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-principle stating that when different gases of equal volumes are at identical temperatures and pressures, they contain equal numbers of molecules
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Avogadro's Principle
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-at a constant temperature, the volume of an ideal gas is inversely proportional to its pressure:
V alpha 1/P |
Boyle's Law
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-at a constant pressure, the volume of an ideal gas is directly proportional to its temperature:
V alpha T |
Charles and Gay-Lussac's Law
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-passive transport of a gas or solute throughout a medium by means of random motion
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Diffusion
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-the movement of gas through a small opening into an area of lower pressure
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Effusion
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-law stating that the rate at which two different gases effuse/diffuse is inversely proportional to the square root of their molecular weight:
R1/R2 = (MM2/MM1)^(1/2) |
Graham's Law
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-the partial pressure of a gas dissolved in a solution is directly proportional to the partial pressure of this gas above the solution
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Henry's Law
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-a hypothetical gas whose particles would occupy zero volume and have no attractive intermolecular forces
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Ideal Gas
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-a unification of Boyle's Law, Charles and Gay-Lussac's Law, and Avagadro's Principle into the formula that describes the behavior of ideal gases:
PV = nRT |
Ideal Gas Law
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-a series of ideas used to account for the behavior of ideal gases
-the theory describes gas as volumeless particles in constant, random motion that exhibit no intermolecular attractions and undergo completely elastic collisions with each other and their container walls |
Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases
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-the pressure contribution of single gas in a container holding a mixture of gases, as given by the equation P(a) = P(total) X(a)
-X(a) is the mole fraction of gas A and P(total) is the total pressure of the mixture |
Partial Pressure
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273 Kelvin (0 degrees C) and 1 atmosphere (760 torr)
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STP
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-the partial pressure of a vapor when it is in equilibrium with its solid or liquid phase
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Vapor Pressure
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-a liquid mixture of two or more substances that has a constant boiling point greater than or less than the boiling point of its constituents
-the vapor of this unique mixture has the same composition as the liquid state, making it difficult to separate the constituents |
Azeotrope
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-the properties of solutions- such as vapor pressure lowering, freezing point depression, boiling point elevation, and osmotic pressure- that are affected only by the number of solute particles dissolved and not by their chemical identities
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Colligatve Properties
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-a pressure versus temperature plot showing the conditions under which a substance exists in equilibrium between different phases or in which the substance exists in pure phase
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Phase Diagram
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-the vapor pressure of one component above a solution is proportional to the mole fraction of that component in the solution:
P(a) = X(a)P(total) |
Raoult's Law
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-a ratio of the amount of solute to the amount of solution
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Concentration
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-a compound ionizing in water that is capable of conducting electricity in that solution
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Electrolyte
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-a single or polyatomic particle with an electric charge
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Ion
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-the product of the molar concentrations of dissociated ions in solution at any point in the reaction other than equilibrium or saturation, where each ion is raised to the power of its stoichiometric coefficient
-denoted IP |
Ion Product
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-concentration of a solution calculated by (mole solute)/(1 kg solvent)
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Molality
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-concentration of a solution calculated by (mole solute)/(L solution)
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Molarity
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-the molar amount of a solute that can dissolve in 1 L of solvent until equilibrium- saturation- is reached
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Molar Solubility
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-the gram equivalent weight of solute per liter of solution, often denoted by N
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Normality
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-a ratio that measures how much solute can dissolve in a solvent at a given temperature, expressed in units of (g solute)/(100 g solvent)
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Solubility
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-the product of the molar concentrations of dissociated ions in solution at saturation, where each ion is raised to the power of its stoichiometric coefficient
-denoated K sp |
Solubility Product Constant
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-a compound, commonly a solid, dissolved in a solvent to create a solution
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Solute
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-when a solute is dissolved in a solvent, it will dissociate until reaching an equilibrium point at which the rate of dissociation equals the rate of precipitation of the solute, regardless of any additional solute introduced into the mixture
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Solution Equilibrium
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-a cagelike network of solvent molecules that forms around a solute in a solution
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Solvation
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-a medium, commonly a liquid, into which a solute is dissolved to create a solution
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Solvent
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-an equilibrium expression used to measure weak-acid strength, given by the ratio of the product of the product's molar concentrations to the product of the reactants' molar concentrations, with each term raised to the power of its stoichiometric coefficient
-denoted Ka |
Acid Dissociation Constant
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-a species capable of reacting with either an H+ or OH-, thereby behaving as either an acid or a base; amphiprotic
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Amphoteric
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-a definition of acids as producers of H+ and bases as producers of OH- in aqueous solution
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Arrhenius Definition
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-common definition of acids as proton (H+) donors and bases as proton acceptors
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Bronsted-Lowry Definition
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-a solution containing a weak acid or base coupled with its conjugate salt, acting to prevent changes to the solution's pH upon the addition of acidic or basic substances
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Buffer
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-a systematic pairing of a deprotonated species with its protonated form
-on opposite sides of a chemical equation |
Conjugate Acids and Bases
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-a base that can accept two moles of H+ per mole of itself (e.g., SO4 (2-))
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Diprotic Base
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-the point in a titration at which an equimolar amount of titrant has been added to the unknown solution
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Equivalence Point
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-the point in a titration at which exactly half the molar equivalence of reactant is consumed by the titrant being aded
-at this point in an acid-base titration, the pK of the unknown solution is revealed: pK = pH of the solution during titration |
Half-Equivalence Point
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-an equation commonly used in titration-based problems that relates the pH or pOH of a solution to the pK and the ratio of the dissociated species:
pH = pKa + log([A-]/-[HA]) |
Henderson-Hasselbach Equation
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-a chemical species that changes color when undergoing dissociation
-used to signal the end point of a titration |
Indicator
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-a definition of acids as electron-pair acceptors and bases as electron-pair donors
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Lewis Definition
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-a reaction in which an acid and a base are combined to form water and a salt
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Neutralizing Reaction
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-scaled value used to measure the acidic strength of a solution, calculated by taking the negative logarithm (-log) of the H+ molar concentration of a solution:
=-log[H+] |
pH
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-the pH of a molecule at which it contains no net electric charge
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Isoelectric Point, pI
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-an acid that will completely dissociate in aqueous solution
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Strong Acid
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-an analytical procedure in which a solution of known concentration is slowly added to a solution of unknown concentration to the point of molar equivalency; thereby providing the concentration of the unknown solution
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Titration
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-an expression of the auto-ionization of water into H+ and OH- at a certain temperature, given by the product of the ions' molar concentrations
-denoted by Kw -equals to 10^-14 at 25 degrees C =[H+][OH-] |
Water Dissociation Constant
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-the electrode at which oxidation occurs during a cell's redox reaction
-electrons always flow from it in an electrochemical cell |
Anode
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-the electrode at which reduction occurs during a cell's redox reaction
-electrons always flow to it in an electrochemical cell |
Cathode
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-a chemical reaction that either is driven by or produces electricity
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Electrochemical Reaction
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-an electrochemcial cell that uses an external electric source to drive a nonspontaneous (unfavorable) redox reaction to proceed
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Electrolytic Cell
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-denoted by F
-equals 9.65 x 10^4 coulombs/mol e- -comonly used in the formulate It = nF where I is current, t is time in sec., and n is mole e- |
Faraday's Constant
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-an electrochemical cell powered by a spontaneous redox reaction that produces an electric current flow; voltaic cell
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Galvanic Cell
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-an electrode immersed in an electrolytic solution that is the site of either oxidation or reduction in a galvanic (voltaic cell)
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Half-Cell
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-an equation used to determine a cell's electromotive force when conditions are not standard:
E(cell) = E(cell0) - (0.0592/n) log Q where n is the number of moles of electrons transferred in the redox reaction |
Nersnt Equation
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-a reaction in which a species loses electrons
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Oxidation
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-a species that is reduced in the process of oxidizing another species
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Oxidizing Agent
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-the hypothetical equation showing only the species that is oxidized or reduced in a redox reaction and the correct number of electrons transferred between the species in the complete, balanced equation
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Redox Half-Reaction
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-a species that is oxidized in the process of reducing another species
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Reducing Agent
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-the difference between the two reduction potentials of half-cells in a cell under standard conditions (i.e., 25 degrees C; 1 M and 1 atm concentration)
-given by: E(cell) = E(cathode) - E(anode) |
Standard Electromotive Force
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-the tendency of a species to be reduced as measured at 25 degrees C when reacting species are of 1 M concentration or 1 atm partial pressure (for gases)
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Standard Reduction Potential
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-a measure of the tendency of a species to be reduced, commonly used in identifying the anode and cathode of an electrochemical cell
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Reduction Potential
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-a reaction in which a species gains electrons
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Reduction
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-the molar solubility of one salt is reduced when another salt, having a common ion, is brought into the same solution
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Common Ion Effect
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a solution containing water as its solvent
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Aqueous Solution
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-a point on a phase diagram at which a substance exists in equilibrium between all three phases
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Triple Point
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