General Biology (Exam 2)

Front 1

Simple definition of energy

Back 1

Motion (when objects more due to force) (movement or potential to move)

Front 2

2 categories of energy

Back 2

1. Kinetic

Motion

2. Potential

Has potential to move (stored energy; covalent bonds)

Front 3

What is chemical energy?

Back 3

bonds between atoms (covalent); making bonds requires some energy and breaking bonds releases energy

Front 4

What are the 2 properties of energy?

Back 4

1. Energy can change form (1st law of thermodynamics)

Potential energy can change to kinetic energy and vice versa

2. Transfer of energy never complete (2nd law of thermodynamics)

Not 100% efficient (energy usually lost as heat)

Front 5

What are some forms of energy?

Back 5

1. Mechanical (movement, sound)

2. Chemical (covalent, ionic, H bonds)

3. Electrical (electrons, ions)

4. Nuclear (protons, neutrons)

5. Electromagnetic 9light, radio, x-rays)

6. Thermal (heat)

Front 6

What are the 3 types of particle movement?

Back 6

1. Simple diffusion

2. Facilitated diffusion

3. Active transport

Front 7

Simple diffusion

Back 7

Movement of particles through the cell membrane; move from high concentration to low concentration; passive (no energy required); non-polar particles through phospholipids

Front 8

Facilitated Diffusion

Back 8

Movement via proteins; high to low concentrations; passive; amino acids, glucose

Front 9

Active Transport

Back 9

Movement in proteins; moves from LOW to HIGH concentrations; requires energy

Front 10

Osmosis

Back 10

Movement of water across cell membrane; water can pass even when other molecules can't (in special proteins; from high to low concentrations; passive

Front 11

What are the 3 types of solutions

Back 11

1. Hypertonic solution ( greater solutes)

2. Hypotonic solution (less solutes)

3. Isotonic solution (equal solutes on both sides)

Front 12

Explain sunlight

Back 12

1. Primary source of energy on earth

2. Sun energy is called protons

3. Only green things can "use" sunlight

Front 13

What is ATP?

Back 13

1. ATP is life's fuel

2. Formed directly via sun energy

3. Made only in chloroplasts in green organisms

4. Large and hard to transport

5. UNIVERSAL ENERGY SOURCE FOR ALL ORGANISMS AT SUB-CELLULAR LEVEL

Front 14

What is Glucose?

Back 14

1. Glucose is the solution to ATP's problems

2. Much smaller than ATP and easier to transport

3. Stores energy of many ATP in 1 glucose

4. ATP is remade through glucose

Front 15

Equation for photosynthesis and where it takes place

Back 15

6 CO2 + 6 H2O --> C6H12O6 + 6 O2

sunlight

(Sunlight + water +carbon dioxide = oxygen and sugar)

Takes place in chloroplasts

Front 16

What are the 2 pathways of photosynthesis?

Back 16

1. Light dependent

2. Light independent

Front 17

Light dependent reaction

Back 17

1. Needs light (daytime)

2. Takes place in thylakoid

Front 18

Light independent reaction

Back 18

1. No light needed (day and night)

2. Takes place in stroma

Front 19

What are the 2 meanings of respiration?

Back 19

1. To breathe

2. Cellular process that releases energy from glucose

Front 20

What is cellular respiration?

Back 20

How organisms convert food (sugars, lipids, proteins) back into ATP

Front 21

What are the 2 types of respiration?

Back 21

1. Aerobic respiration (with oxygen)

2. Anaerobic respiration (without oxygen)

Front 22

Aerobic Respiration

Back 22

1. Opposite of photosynthesis [Glucose (C6H12O6) + O2 = CO2 + Water + energy (ATP)]

2. Takes place in mitochondria (eukaryotic cells only)

3. Has 2 pathways (look at notes)

4. Yields total of 36 ATP (2 in Glycolysis, 2 in 1st pathway, 32 in 2nd pathway)

Front 23

Anaerobic respiration

Back 23

1. Can occur in 2 ways: Yeast fermentation and lactic acid (look at notes)

2. Both yield 2 ATP

3. Has waste products (either alcohol or lactic acid)

4. 18X less energy that aerobic respiration

Front 24

What would happen if a cell's inner content is hypertonic compared to outside the cell? (Membrane is permeable to solutes)

Back 24

Diffusion (cell shrink)

Front 25

What would happen if a cell's inner content is hypertonic compared to outside the cell. (membrane is impermeable to solutes)

Back 25

Cell explode (Osmosis)

Front 26

Where does almost all energy come from originally fro living organisms on earth?

Back 26

Sunlight

Front 27

Describe sickle cell anemia

Back 27

1. Red blood cells are abnormal (crescent shaped; pointed edges; clogs small blood vessels)

2. Shorter life span

3. 1 copy of gene = resistance to malaria; 2 copies = anemia

Front 28

Gene

Back 28

Segment of DNA that codes for a protein

Front 29

Genome

Back 29

Entire nucleotide sequence for all DNA in a species

Front 30

DNA

Back 30

1. Deoxyribonucleic Acid

2. Genetic molecule of all life

3. Links all life forms

4. Responsible for traits/growth/etc.

Front 31

What are the 3 parts of the DNA molecule? What shape is DNA?

Back 31

1. Sugar (sides of ladder)

2. Phosphate (sides of ladder)

3. Nitrogenous bases (nucleotides) (steps of ladder)

4. Double stranded helix

Front 32

What are the 5 nitrogenous bases (nucleotides)?

Back 32

1. G (Both DNA & RNA)

2. A (Both)

3. C (Both)

4. T (DNA only)

5. U (RNA only)

Front 33

What are the 2 pairs of bases?

Back 33

1. A pairs with T

2. C pairs with G

Front 34

What bond connects bases?

Back 34

Hydrogen bonds

Front 35

Use base pairing rule to determine complimentary strand to this DNA sequence: AAGGTT

Back 35

TTCCAA

Front 36

What are the 2 functions of DNA

Back 36

1. Pass instructions to new cells (Cell division/asexual; Cell reproduction/sexual)

2. "Instructions" for protein synthesis

Front 37

How does DNA replicate?

Back 37

1. DNA strands unwind

2. Each side is a template for new strand

3. "New" nucleotides attach to each side

(look in notes)

Front 38

Describe RNA

Back 38

1. Ribonucleic Acid

2. Differs from DNA in 3 ways: Different sugar; base U instead of T (A pairs with U); Single strands

Front 39

What is the process of DNA to Protein?

Back 39

DNA --> RNA --> Protein

(transcription) (translation)

Front 40

Transcription occurs in ______ of cell and translation occurs in _____

Back 40

1. Nucleus

2. Cytosol

Front 41

What are the 2 stages of protein synthesis?

Back 41

1. Transcription: assembly of mRNA (messenger RNA) strand complimentary to DNA in nucleus

2. Translation: assembly of protein in mRNA code in Ribosome (cytosol)

Front 42

Use base pairing rules to determine complimentary strand of RNA to this DNA sequence: AAGGTT (DNA)

Back 42

UUCCAA (RNA)

Front 43

What are the 2 types of RNA?

Back 43

1. mRNA

2. tRNA

Front 44

What is mRNA?

Back 44

1. It carries DNA's instructions for proteins from Nucleus to Ribosomes

2. Codons: group of 3 bases on mRNA

Front 45

What is tRNA?

Back 45

1. Transfers amino acids from cytosol to ribosome

2. Anticodon: group of 3 bases on tRNA; opposite of codes on codons

Front 46

Describe mutations

Back 46

1. They are a change in DNA code

2. Errors in replication (DNA) or transcription (RNA) can lead to disease

3. Some undated by: x-rays, UV light, viruses, chemicals

Front 47

Describe chromosomes

Back 47

1. Segments of DNA and proteins that have filamentous (long, skinny, narrow) structures that carry genes.

2. Come in pairs; each organism has specific number

3. Humans have 46 (23 pairs)

Front 48

What are the 3 patterns of cell division

Back 48

1. Binary fission

2. Mitosis

3. Meiosis

Front 49

Describe binary fission

Back 49

1. Takes place in prokaryotes (single cells organisms)

2. Circular DNA (Asexual reproduction)

Front 50

Diploid

Back 50

1. Cell containing as many chromosomes as parent

2. 2 sets of chromosomes (1 from each parent)

Front 51

Haploid

Back 51

1. Cell containing half as many chromosomes as parent

2. One set of chromosomes

Front 52

Homologous chromosomes

Back 52

1. 2 same sized chromosomes (pairs) that code for same function

2. You get 1 from each parent

Front 53

What are the 5 phases of the cell cycle?

Back 53

1. Gap 1 phase (G1)

2. Synthesis phase (S)

3. Gap 2 phase (G2)

4. Mitosis

5. Cytokinesis

Front 54

Describe G1 phase

Back 54

1. Cell growth

2. Normal functions

3. DNA uncoiled

4. Organelles replicate

Front 55

Describe S phase

Back 55

1. Replication of chromosomes/DNA

2. Sister chromatids

3. Centromere

Front 56

What are sister chromatids?

Back 56

2 identical copies of DNA on each chromosome joined by centromere (one side of the X)

Front 57

What is the centromere?

Back 57

The point of attachment for sister chromatids

Front 58

Describe G2 phase

Back 58

1. DNA uncoiled

2. Prepare for mitosis (check DNA replication)

Front 59

What phases make up interphase?

Back 59

G1, S, G2

Front 60

What is the order of mitosis?

Back 60

1. Interphase

2. Prophase

3. Metaphase

4. Anaphase

Front 61

What occurs during prophase?

Back 61

1. Chromosomes coil (visible)

2. Nuclear membrane disappears

3. Centrioles at poles

Front 62

What are centrioles?

Back 62

Organelles that pull sister chromatids apart with spindle fibers (proteins)

Front 63

What occurs during metaphase?

Back 63

1. Chromosomes line up in middle

2. Spindle fibers attach to centromeres

Front 64

What are the results of mitosis?

Back 64

1. Division of DNA in nucleus

2. 2 new "daughter cells" (each identical to "parent" cell; occurs in body cells)

Front 65

Asexual reproduction

Back 65

1. Due to mitosis

2. Occurs for many plants an microorganisms

Front 66

Sexual reproduction

Back 66

1. Requires 2 parents, each contributing half of the DNA

2. Offspring not identical to parents

Front 67

What is the difference between transcription and translation?

Back 67

Transcription occurs first

Front 68

Process by which cells become specified to perform a particular function

Back 68

Differentiation

Front 69

What is the biggest advantage of sexual reproduction?

Back 69

Variation in offspring

Front 70

What are some of the disadvantages?

Back 70

1. Asexual species go at twice the rate of sexual reproduction

2. Sexual species need to yield individuals of both sexes

3. Also need 2 sexes to reproduce

Front 71

What does it mean by "Humans are diploid?"

Back 71

1. We have 46 chromosomes

2. 23 homologous pairs (2 sets)

3. Each chromosome paid has 1 copy of each gene (2 copies of each gene per person)

Front 72

Sex cells are

Back 72

Haploid (23 chromosomes)

Front 73

Fertilization:

Back 73

Joins 2 haploid cells (egg and sperm) for new individual

Front 74

Where does meiosis take place?

Back 74

In the sex organs (ovaries and testes)

Front 75

What does meiosis produce?

Back 75

Gametes (sex cells)

Front 76

How many divisions does meiosis have?

Back 76

2 (Meiosis 1, Meiosis 2)

Front 77

Prophase 1 (Meiosis)

Back 77

1. Chromosomes condense

2. homologous chromosomes pair up

3. Crossing over occurs

4. Gene codes a trait

Front 78

Crossing over

Back 78

Process where arms on homologous chromosomes are switched (NOTES)

Front 79

Alleles

Back 79

Different version of gene that controls traits but are not identical form (but similar): trait- hair color; alleles- red, brown, blond

Front 80

Metaphase 1 (Meiosis)

Back 80

Homologous pairs line up in middle

Front 81

Anaphase 1 (meiosis)

Back 81

1. Homologous pairs separate

2. Sister chromatids stay together (LAB MANUAL)

Front 82

Telophase 1 (Meiosis)

Back 82

Nuclear membrane reforms

Front 83

Cytokinesis 1 (Meiosis)

Back 83

1. Cell splits, ends with 2 separate cells

2. No DNA replication between meiosis 1 and meiosis 2 (DNA already replicated)

Front 84

Metaphase 2

Back 84

Chromosomes line up on center line single file (No pairs anymore)

Front 85

Anaphase 2

Back 85

Sister chromatids separate

Front 86

Telophase 2

Back 86

4 (total) new nuclei form

Front 87

Cytokinesis

Back 87

Cell splits; 4 daughter cells, all haploid

Front 88

Female sex cells

Back 88

1 large egg cell

3 small polar bodies

Cytoplasm in 1 egg contains majority of organelles

Front 89

Male sex cells

Back 89

4 small sperm; all functional

Few organelles

Front 90

What are the 3 sources of variation in sexual reproduction?

Back 90

1. Crossing over in Meiosis 1

2. Random assortment

3. Fertilization

Front 91

What is random assortment

Back 91

Chromosomes from your dad not all on one side in Meiosis 1; split apart randomly

Front 92

How is genetic variation an advantage of sexual reproduction?

Back 92

it allows offspring to survive in changing environment

Front 93

Glycolysis

Back 93

Separates Glucose (6 carbons) into two 3-carbon molecules, producing 2 ATP