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185 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Learning
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Any relatively permanent change in behavior that is based upon experience, influenced by inside and outside factors
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Behaviorism
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Psychologists who insist that psychologists should study only observable, measurable behavior
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Intervening variable
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A certain stimuli that determines how a subject behaves
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Radical behaviorists
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Internal states caused by events in the environment or by genetics, the ultimate cause of behavior is observable events.
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Stimulus-response psychology
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Attempts to explain behavior in terms of how each stimulus triggers a response
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Determinism
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The assumption that we live in a universe of identifiable cause and effect. Our behavior must have identifiable causes.
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The assumptions of behaviorism
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1) The environment plays a powerful role in molding behavior
2)The most powerful influence on behavior is outcome 3) Our environment selects and perpetuates successful behaviors |
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Ivan Pavlov
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Won a Nobel Prize for his research on digestion
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Conditioned response (CR)
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The response elicited by the conditioned stimulus due to the training. Usually it closely resembles the UCR.
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Unconditioned response (UCR)
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An action that the unconditioned stimulus automatically elicits (without conditioning)
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Neutral stimulus
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A stimulus that elicits attention, but that has no automatic connection to a response
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Habituate
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Becoming used to a neutral stimulus, so that attention is no longer elicited
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Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
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An event that consistently and automatically elicits an unconditioned response
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Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
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Formerly the neutral stimulus, after being paired with the unconditioned stimulus, elicits a conditioned response (CR)
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Acquisition
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The conditioning process that establishes or strengthens a conditioned response
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Extinction
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The gradual decrease and elimination of a conditioned response
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Spontaneous recovery
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The temporary return of an extinguished response
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Stimulus generalization
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An extension of a conditioned response from the training stimulus to similar stimuli
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Discrimination
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The process of learning to response differently to two stimuli because they produce two different outcomes
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Forward conditioning
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The conditioned reponse (CR) will be acquired when the CS precedes the UCS.
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Backward conditioning
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The conditioned response follows the UCS, rarely produces any conditioning
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Temporal contiguity
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Nearness in time between CS and UCS does facilitate the process of conditioning
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Delay conditioning
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The CS continues until the presence of the UCS.
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Trace conditioning
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The CS stops well before the UCS is presented, a very slow was to condition a response
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Blocking effects
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Certain stimuli block other stimuli from becoming conditioned.
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A conditioned response develops only if there is _______
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predictability or contingency
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Learning curve
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A graph of the changes in behavior that occur over successive trials of a learning experiment to record how quickly cats learned to escape from a puzzle box
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Reinforcement
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An event that increases the future probability of the most recent response
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Operant conditioning
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The process of changing behavior by following a response with a reinforcer
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Extinction occurs in operant conditioning if responses stop producing _______
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reinforcements
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Discriminative stimulus
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A stimulus that indicates which response is appropriate or inappropriate
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Discrimination
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Occurs when the subject is reinforced for responding to one stimulus but not another
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Stimulus control
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The ability of a stimulus to encourage some responses and discourage others
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Stimulus generalization
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A new stimulus that is similar to the original reinforced stimulus has a stronger reaction
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B.F. Skinner
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The most influential of all radical behaviorists, demonstrated many examples of operant conditioning, firm believer in parsimony
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Shaping
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Establishes new responses by reinforcing successive approximations to it
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Chaining
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An operant conditioning method in which behaviors are reinforced by opportunities to engage in the next behaviors
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Punishment
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An event that decreases the probability of a response
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An reinforcement can be
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1) A removal of the unpleasant or negative
2) The presentation of the desirable |
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A punishment can be
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1) A removal of the desirable
2) The presentation of the unpleasant or negative |
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Positive
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The delivering of a stimulus
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Negative
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The removing of a stimulus
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Reinforcement _________ response rate
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increases
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Punishments ______ response rate
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decreases
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Positive reinforcement
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The presentation of an event that strengthens or increases the likelihood of an event
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Passive avoidance learning
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In response to punishment, an individual learns to avoid the outcome by being passive
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Escape learning or active avoidance learning
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The response leads to escape from or avoidance of something painful (negative reinforcement)
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Omission training
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The omission of the response produces reinforcement (negative punishment)
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Premack Principle
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The opportunity to engage in frequent behavior will be a reinforcer for a less-frequent behavior
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Unconditioned reinforcers
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These meet primary, biological needs and are found to be reinforcing for almost everyone, ex. food and drink
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Conditioned reinforcers
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They have become associated with unconditioned reinforcers, ex. money, grades
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Latent learning
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Learning may occur in animals without being demonstrated until the reward is presented
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Schedule of reinforcement
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A set of rules for delivery of reinforcement
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Continuous reinforcement schedule
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Provides reinforcement every time a response occurs
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Ratio
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The number of responses given by the individual determine the delivery of reinforcement
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Interval
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The delivery of reinforcement depends upon the amount of time that has passed since the last reinforcement
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Fixed-ratio schedule
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Provides reinforcement only after a certain "fixed" number of correct responses have been made
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Variable-ratio schedule
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Provides reinforcement after a variable number of correct responses, usually working out to an average in the long run
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Fixed-interval schedule
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Provides reinforcement for the first response made after a specific time interval
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Variable-interval schedule
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Provides reinforcement after a variable amount of time has elapsed
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Belongingness
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The concept that certain stimuli are classified together or more readily associated with certain outcomes more so than with others, "preparedness"
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Conditioned taste aversion
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A built in predisposition to associate illness with what they have consumed, even if some time has elapsed between consumption of the substance and the onset of the illness
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Memory
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A general term for the storage, retention, and recall of events, information, and procedures
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Proactive interference
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The retention of old material makes it harder to retain new material
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Retroactive interference
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The learning of new materials makes it harder to retain the old material
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Meaningfulness
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Meaningful materials are easier to remember
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Distinctiveness
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Distinctive or unusual information is easier to retain
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Recall (free recall)
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Most difficult for the person being tested
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Cued recall
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Gives the tester significant hints (cues) about the correct answer
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Recognition
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Requires the person being tested to identify the correct item from a list of choices
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Savings (relearning)
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The rate at which someone relearns material that was already learned
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Sensory store
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The first stage of memory processing, involves not only memory but also perception, very brief stage
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Short-term memory
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Temporary storage of information that someone has just encountered
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Long-term memory
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A relatively permanent storage of mostly meaningful information
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Attention
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Moves information from the sensory store to short-term memory
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Chunking
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Combining smaller units of information into larger, meaningful units
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Rehearsal
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Helps to transfer information from short-term memory into long-term memory
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Consolidation
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The formation of long term memory
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Working memory
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A system for processing current information, updatable, erasable
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Declarative memory
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Memory of a fact
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Semantic memory
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Dealing with the principles of knowledge
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Procedural memory
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Containing events and details of life history
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Procedural memory
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Memory of how to do something (such as tying your shoe lace)
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During stressful or emotional events, the sympathetic nervous system works to boost production of the hormones ______ and ______.
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Cortisol, adrenaline
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Amygdala
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Increased stimulation happens here during emotional arousal
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Levels-of-Processing Principle
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The more ways in which you think about the material, the more easily you will remember the material later
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Serial-order Effect
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We tend to remember the beginning and end of a list better than the middle
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Recency Effect
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The tendency to remember the end
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SPAR Method
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Survey, Process meaningfully, Ask question, Review
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Retrieval Cues
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Bits of associated information that help you to regain complex memories for later use
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Encoding specificity principle
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The associations formed at the time of learning are typically the most effective retrieval cues
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State-dependent memory
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Our tendency to remember something is better is your physical condition is the same at the time of recall as it was at the time of retrieval
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Amnesia
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A severe loss or deterioration of memory
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Patient "H.M."
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Had hippocampus removed to control seizures, experienced dramatic memory impairment
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Retrograde amnesia
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Loss of memory for events BEFORE brain damage or another trauma
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Anterograde amnesia
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Difficulty in forming new memories after some trauma
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Explicit memories
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Knowledge and events in which a person deliberately retrieves the answer and recognizes it as a correct one
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Implicit memory
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Does not require recognition, is unconscious
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Reconstruction
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The process of remembering event where you start with details you remember clearly, and fill in the gaps with expectations of what MOST LIKELY happened
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Expectations
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What most likely happened
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Hindsight bias
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The tendency to mold our recollection of the past to how events later turned out
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Recovered memories
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Reports of long-lost memories prompted by clinical techniques
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False memory
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A report that an individual believes to be a memory but that does not correspond to actual events
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Cognition
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Thinking, gaining knowledge, and dealing with knowledge
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Language
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Intimately related to the activities of cognition
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Cognitive psychology
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Uses a variety of methods to measure mental processes and test theories about what we know and how we know it
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Cognitive psychologists
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Study how people think, acquire knowledge, what they know, what they imagine, and how they solve problems
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Categories
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One of the primary ways that we organize information about our world
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Prototype
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A familiar or typical example of a category
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Preattentive process
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A procedure for extracting information automatically across a large portion of the visual field
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Attentive process
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A procedure that considers only one part of the visual field at a time
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Stroop Effect
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An example of the difference between preattentive and attentive process, the difficult associated with saying the color of words
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Attentional blink
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The after effect of shifting attention
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Cognitive map
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A mental image of a spatial arrangement, tend to exhibit interesting patterns of error
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Experts
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People whose abilities are particularly advanced
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Practice
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This often results in expert level abilities in a given subject
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Pattern recognition
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A key skill possessed by experts, the ability to become good at quickly recognizing patterns
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Problem solving approaches
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1) Create a simpler version
2) Answer a related question 3) Estimate, based on what you DO know |
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Algorithm
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A mechanical, repetitive, step-by-step procedure for arriving at the solution to a problem
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Heuristics
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Strategies for simplifying a problem or guiding an investigation
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Overconfidence
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Our belief that our answers are more accurate than they actually are
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Premature Commitment to a Hypothesis
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Commitment before we have all available information on the problem
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Representativeness heuristic
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The tendency to assume that if an item is similar to members of a particular category, it is also a member of that category
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Base-rate information
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The data about the frequency or probably of a given event
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Availibility heuristic
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The strategy of assuming that how easily one can remember examples of an event is an indicator of how common that event actually is
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Framed
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The presentation of a question
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Framing effect
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The tendency to answer a question differently when it is phrased differently
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Sunk Cost Effect
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Our tendency to do something that we'd otherwise choose not to do, just because we invested the money, time, or energy to be able to do it.
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People overestimate their control over _____ ________
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Chance outcomes
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Gambling is rewarded on the ______-________ scale
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Variable-ratio
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Only human languages can truly be called _______
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productive
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Deep structure
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Human languages communicate in these, the meaning or underlying logic of our statements
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Transformational grammar
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Grammar that communicates the deep meaning or underlying logic of a statement
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Williams Syndrome
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A mental conditions where an individual has cognitive abilities classified as mental retardation, but have excellent facility with language
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Nativists
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People who believe that humans are born with a built-in, brain based mechanism for learning language (Chomsky, Pinker)
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Broca's Area
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A part of the brain vital for using and understanding grammatical devices - prepositions, conjunctions, prefixes, suffixes, and the like
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Wernicke's Area
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Appears to be important for naming objects and comprehending language
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Aphasias
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A term for various inabilities to process or use language
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Word-superiority effect
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Refers to the fact that people are generally better at recognizing individual letters when they are a part of a word rather than when they are standing alone or with a nonsense cluster
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Phonemes
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Units of sounds (single letters or combinations of letters)
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Morphemes
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Units of meaning - usually syllables or words
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Smooth pursuit
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The steady movement of human eyes when following a moving object
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Saccades
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The quick eye movements that take your gaze from one fixation point to another, we are virtually blind during these periods
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Fixations
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Periods when your eyes are stationary
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Speedreaders
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Heave briefer fixations and backtrack less frequently than do average adult readers
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Intelligence
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A combination of natural abilities and practiced skill, not easy to define or measure
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Psychometric approach to intelligence
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Attempt to measure individual differences in behaviors and abilities, Spearman's idea
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"G"
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the general mental ability of someone
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"Specific" ability
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An more specific ability, that is less general than "g" required to complete a task
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Fluid intelligence
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Idea created by Raymond Cattell, the power of reasoning and applying information
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Crystallized intelligence
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Idea created by Raymond Cattell, comprises required skills and knowledge
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Multiple Intelligences
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A theory created by Gardner, proposed that humans possess multiple intelligences (a variety of distinct, unrelated forms of intelligence)
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Savant
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"learned one", diganosed with overall above average or below average intelligence, but show phenomenal skill in one area
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Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
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Created by Robert Sternberg, differentiates between three aspects of intelligent behavior:
1) cognitive processes 2) Identification of situations needing intelligence 3) Ability to use intelligence in the external world |
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Intelligence Quotient (IQ) tests
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Attempt to measure an individual's probably performance in school and similar settings
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Stanford-Binet Test
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A type of IQ test, intellectual age divided by chronological age x 100
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Adaptive testing
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A baseline established at the level at which the child answers all the items correctly and a ceiling level at which the child answers all the items incorrectly.
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Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-III)
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An IQ test for children age 16 and below
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Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-III)
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An IQ test for adults above the age of 16
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Raven's Progressive Matrices
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A culture-fair test, attempts to measure the subject's abstract reasoning abilities, but clearly is biased and eliminates many other aspects of intelligence
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Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT)
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A test designed to predict performance in college
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Standardization
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The process of establishing rules for administering a test and for interpreting the scores, based on a large and representative population
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Normal distribution
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A bell-shaped curve of results
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Test-retest reliability
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The correlation between the scores on the first test and a retest, ranges between 0 and 1
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Validity
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A determination of how well a test measures what it claims to measure, predicts some real world performance
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Readiness potential
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The brain's readiness potential beings to rise in preparation of an upcoming decision or movement. Happens several seconds before an individual can say they "made" a decision or a command.
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Circadian rhythms
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Cycles of activity and inactivity generally lasting about one day (from the Latin circa = "about" and dies = "day")
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Jet lag
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A period of weariness and discomfort that occurs while your body clock is out of step with your new time zone. It is easier to adjust going east to west.
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Suprachiasmic nucleus (SCN)
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Governs the circadian cycle of sleep and wakeful states
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Pineal gland
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The regulation of production of melatonin by this gland in part regulates the sleep-wake cycle
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Repair and restoration theory of sleep
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The reason that we sleep is to allow the body time to recover from the exertions of the day
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Evolutionary Theory (Energy Conservation Theory)
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Evolution has equipped all animals with a regular pattern of sleep and wakefulness to help us conserve energy and avoid dangers, accounts well for differences among species
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Rapid-eye movement (REM) sleep
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The sleeper's eyes are moving rapidly around under the closed eyelids, also referred to as paradoxical sleep
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Paradoxical sleep
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AKA REM sleep, the physiological and brain wave activity look just like the waking state, yet the large muscles of the sleeper are so relaxed that the person is effectively paralyzed
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electroencephalograph (EEG)
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A machine that measure electrical activity on the scalp that is associated with activity in the cortex combined with a device to measure eye movements
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Stage 1 NREM
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The stage entered when first dozing off, little eye movement, a fair amount of "desynchronized" brain activity
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Stage 2 NREM
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Gradual transition into sychronized, slow wave states
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Stage 3 and 4 NREM
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Feature slow waves, indicated decreased brain activity, eyes remain relatively inactive, sleep gradually moves back through stages 3 and 2 and then shows the first REM episode of the night
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Manifest content
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The surface content of a dream
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Latent content
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The hidden content, represented only in symbols, found in dreams
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Activation-synthesis theory of dreams
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The activation that occurs in the brain stem (the pons) during REM sleep activates the forebrain
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Neurocognitive theory
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Assumes that dreams are a form of thinking, occurring under special conditions, conditions include:
1) persistent activity of the cortex 2) reduction of sensory stimulation 3) loss of self-control of thinking |
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Insomnia
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"lack of sleep", when a person complains of feeling poorly rested due to not getting enough sleep
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Sleep apnea
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Falling asleep and failing to breathe for a minute or even longer and then waking up gasping for breath, can lead to death
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Narcolepsy
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Sudden attacks of extreme and irresistible sleepiness during the day, associated with muscle weakness or paralysis, and vivid dreams
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