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253 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Isotopes... Different number of ______ but same number of _____
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neutrons, protons
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Mass number
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total number of protons and neutrons
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A/Z X
A= Z= |
A= Mass number (N+P)
Z= atomic number = P |
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Avogadro's Number
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6.02 x 10 23
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Planck's Constant
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E=hf
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Bohr Model
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assumed electrons follow a circular orbit at a fixed distance from the nucleus. No longer valid
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Modern quantum mechanical model
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electrons are in a state of rapid motion in space around the nucleus called orbitals
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Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
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impossible to determine both the momentum and position of an electron simultaneously
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The 4 Quantum Numbers
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n, l, ml, ms
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N quantum number =
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size
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l quantum number =
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shape
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ml quantum number =
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orientation
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Principal quantum number
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n
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N can be +/- integer/fraction?
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n can be any positive integer
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Max number of electrons for n
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2n squared
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The distance in energy between adjacent shells ________ as the distance from the nucleus _______
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decreases, increases
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Azimuthal quantum number
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l
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l =
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subshells
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Range of l
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0 to n-1
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max number for l
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4l + 2
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Magnetic quantum number =
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ml
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possible values of ml
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all integers from l to -l
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S=
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0
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P orbital for ml has...
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2*(1) +1 = 3
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D orbital for ml has...
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2*(2) +1 = 5
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F orbital for ml has...
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2*(3) +1 = 7
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Spin quantum number =
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ms
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Ms has values of
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+/- 1/2
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T/F Two electrons in the same orbital must have opposite spins
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True
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T/F two electrons in the same orbital can have the same spin
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False
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T/F If two subshells possess the same (n+l) value the subshell with the lower "n" value will fill first
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True
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T/F With uncharged atoms the number of electrons equals the atomic number in the denominator
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True
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T/F For charged atoms the number of electrons is equal to the atomic number plus the extra electrons if the atom is negative, or the atomic number minus the electrons if the atom is positive
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True
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Hund's Rule
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l orbitals are filled such that there is a max number of half-filled orbitals with parallel spins
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Paramagnetic
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unpaired electrons are present
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Diamagnetic
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no unpaired electrons exist
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Pauli Exclusion Principle
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no two electrons can have the same four quantum numbers
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Periods
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Rows
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Groups
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Columns
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How many periods are there?
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7
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Valence electrons
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Electrons in outermost shell involved in chemical bonding
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T/F The roman numeral above each group represents the number of valence electrons
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True
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T/F As you go from L to R across a table the outermost electrons become closer and more tightly bound to the nucleus
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True
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T/F As one goes down a given column the outermost electrons become LESS tightly bound to the nucleus
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True
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Atomic radius trend
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DECREASES across a period from L to R and INCREASES from top to bottom of a group
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The atoms with the largest atomic radii are located at the ______ of a group
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bottom
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IE (other names)
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ionization eenrgy, ionization potential
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IE definition
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energy required to completely remove an electron from a gaseous atom or ion
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Is IE exothermic or endothermic?
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endothermic- always requires energy
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Is the 2nd IE always greater than the 1st IE?
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Yes
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Electron affinity definition
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energy change that occurs when an electron is added to a gaseous atom
the ease the atom can accept an electron |
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Electronegativity definition
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measure of attraction an atom has for electrons in a chemical bond
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Top right corner of table has largest
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IE, EN
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The bottom right corner of table has largest
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atomic radii
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3 types of elements
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metals, nonmetals, metalloids
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Metals
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shiny solids
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Do metals have high or low melting points?
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High
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Can metals be deformed without breaking?
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Yes
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Are metals malleable?
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Yes
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Are metals ductile (Drawn into wire)?
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Yes
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Are metals good conductors of heat and electricity?
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Yes
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Are nonmetals brittle?
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In solid state, yes
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Are nonmetals good or poor conductors of electricity?
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Poor
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Metalloid properties
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Vary significantly
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Do Alkali metals (IA) have higher or lower densities compared to most other metals?
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Lower
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How many valence electrons do halogens have?
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7
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Are the Noble gases reactive or nonreactive?
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Nonreactive. They are happy with 8 electrons
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Exceptions to 8 electron rule
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Hydrogen (2) lithium (2), beryllium (4), Boron (6), beyond second row (P and S) more than 8 by using d orbitals
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Ionic bonding
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electrons with smaller IE are transferred to an atom with a greater electron affinity, and the resulting ions are held by electrostatic forces
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Covalent bonding
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where electrons are shared between two atoms. Usually partially covalent and partially ionic.
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What are partially covalent and partially ionic (covalent) bonds called?
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Polar covalent
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Do ionic bonds have higher or lower melting and boiling points?
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Higher due to strong electrostatic forces between ions
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In which states can ionic bonds conduct electricity?
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liquid and aqueous (not solid)
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Which bonds form crystal lattices (ionic or covalent)?
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ionic
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Bond length trend
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triple bond is SHORTEST
single bond is LONGEST |
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Bond energy trend
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Single bond has LOWEST energy
Triple bond has HIGHEST energy |
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Formal Charge =
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V - 1/2 (Nbonding - Nnonbonding)
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Resonance
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where molecule does not exist as other structure but actually as a hybrid of the two
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T/F A Lewis structure with small or no formal charges is preferred over one with large formal charges
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True
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Types of Covalent Bonds
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Polar covalent, nonpolar covalent, coordinate covalent
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Polar covalent bond
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occurs between atoms with small differences in electronegativity between range of 0.4-1.7 Pauling units
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Nonpolar covalent bonds
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occurs between atoms of same electronegativities. Shared equally
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Coordinate covalent
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shared electron pair comes from the lone pair of one of the atoms in the molecule
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2 regions of electron density (shape, angle)
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linear, 180
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3 regions (shape, angle)
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trigonal planar, 120
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4 regions (shape, angle)
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tetrahedral, 109.5
CH4 |
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5 regions (shape, angle)
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trigonal bipyramidal 90,120,180
PCl5 |
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6 regions (shape, angle)
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octahedral 90,180
SF6 |
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When counting regions to describe shape and angle the count is always the total number of elements -1
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True. Ex. BH3 = 4 elements, but 3 regions, trigonal planar, 120
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Do the regions of electron density include or exclude electron pairs?
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Include electron pairs
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T/F A molecule with nonpolar bonds is always nonpolar
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True
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A molecule with polar bonds can be polar or nonpolar
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True. Orientation could cancel the polarity out
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Types of Intermolecular Forces
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Dipole-dipole, hydrogen bonding, dispersion forces
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dipole-dipole forces
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present in solid and liquid phases but not gas
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Do Polar species have higher or lower boiling points than nonpolar species?
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Higher
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Hydrogen bonding is an example of a strong
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Dipole-dipole force
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Do hydrogen bonds have higher or lower boiling points compared to similar molecular formulas with less hydrogen bonds?
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unusually higher boiling points
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Van Der Waals forces
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interact with electron clouds of neighboring molecules, inducing the formation of more dipoles
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Compound
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pure substance composed of two or more elements in a fixed proportion
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Molecule
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combination of two or more atoms held together by covalent bonds
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Do ionic compounds form true molecules?
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No
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Equivalent Weight formula
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Equivalent = Wt of Compound / gram Eq Wt
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GEW formula =
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GEW= Molar Mass/ n
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Law of Constant composition
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sample of a compound will contain the same elements in the identical mass ratio
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Empirical formula
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simplest whole number ratio of the elements in the compound
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Molecular formula
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gives exact number of atoms in each element in the compound, usually a multiple of the empirical formula
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Percent Composition
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% Comp = Mass of X in formula/ formula Wt of Compound x 100%
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Combination reaction
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A + B = AB
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Decomposition reaction
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AB= A + B
usually heat involved |
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Single Displacement reaction
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A + BC = B + AC
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Double Displacement reaction
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AB + CD = AC + BD
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Are spectator ions included in a net ionic equation?
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No, they do not participate and are therefore left out
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What is a neutralizing reaction?
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Specific type of DD reaction when an acid reacts with a base to produce salt and water
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Tips for balancing equations
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focus on least represented elements first and work your way to the most represented elements (usually O or H)
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When quantities of 2 reactants are given you are dealing with a
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Limiting Reactant Problem
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Yields
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amount of product predicted or obtained when the reaction is carried out, can be determined from balanced equation
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Theoretical yield
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amount that can be predicted from balanced equation assuming all limiting reagent has been used and all product is collected (hardly ever happens)
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Actual yield
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amount isolated from reaction experimentally
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% Yield
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% Yield = Actual / Theoretical x 100%
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Rate law rate =
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Rate = k [A]x[B]y (exponents)
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the OVERALL order of a reaction (the reaction order) =
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= x + y
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Zero order
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has a constant rate independent of reactant concentrations
Rate = k |
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First Order
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rate proportional to the concentration of one reactant. Rate = k[A] or k[B]. Units of sec -1
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Second Order
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rate proportional to product of the concentration of two reactants, or the square of a single reactant. Rate = k[A]2 or k[B]2 or rate = k[A][B]. Units are M-1sec-1
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Higher Order
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any order greater than 2
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Mixed order
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Has a fractional order
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Collision Theory of chemical kinetics
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rate of rxn is proportional to to number of collisions per second between reacting molecules.
Rate = fZ Z = total collisions/sec and f = fraction of effective collisions |
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Transition State Theory
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activated complex has greater energy than either reactants or the products
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How Reactant Concentration affects rate
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the greater the concentration the greater the reaction rate for all but zero order reactions
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How Temp affects reaction rate
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As temp increases, rxn rate increases approx 10 degree C it doubles
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How Catalysts affect rxn rate
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increase rate without being consumed by lowering activation energy
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Do pure solids or pure liquids appear in Keq?
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NO
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Keq =
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Produts/ Reactants
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If Keq is > 1, the mixture will contain very few (products or reactants)?
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reactants (denominator)
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If Keq < 1 the mixture will contain very few (products or reactants)?
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products (numerator)
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Le Chatelier's Principle
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when a stress is applied the system adjusts to relieve the applied stress
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If you add A or B the reaction shifts
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towards C&D (right)
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If you remove A or B the reaction shifts
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left towards A & B
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When pressure is increased the eq shifts
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to the side of LESS moles
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When pressure is decreased the eq shifts
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to the side of MORE moles
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When volume is reduced it shifts
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to the side of LESS moles
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When volume is increased it shifts
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to side of MORE moles
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Are pressure and Volume inverse?
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Yes, so pick one and memorize the other is the opposite
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Is heat a reactant or product in endothermic rxn?
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reactant
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Is heat a reactant or product in an exothermic rxn?
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product
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So ice bath decreases tep and the arrow goes
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to replace the lost heat
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So boiling water bath increases heat and the eq shifts
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to other side to equal or cancel out that stress
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3 types of thermo systems
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isolated, closed, open
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Isolated system
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cannot exchange energy or matter
bomb reactor |
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Closed system
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can exchange energy but not matter
steam radiator |
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Open system
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can exchange both matter and energy
pot of boiling water |
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isothermal process
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temp of system remains constant
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adiabiatic process
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no heat exchange occurs
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isobaric process
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pressure of system remains constant
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Heat (Def)
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form of energy which can easily transfer to or form a system, the result of a temp difference between the system and its surroundings
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Endothermic
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absorb heat energy (required)
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Exothermic
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release heat energy (given off)
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Calorimetry formula
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q = mc (delta T)
m= mass c= specific heat T is change in Temp |
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State function
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properties whose magnitude depends only on initial and final states, not on path of change
ex: pressure, temp, volume |
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Standard conditions
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25 degrees C, 1 atm
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Enthalpy (H)
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heat absorbed or evolved by system at constant pressure
H = H prod - H react + H = endothermic - H = exothermic |
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Hess's Law
|
enthalpies of reactions are additive
|
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Bond dissociation energy
|
average energy required to break a particular type of bond in one molevule of gaseous molecules
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Entropy (S)
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measure of disorder or randomness of a system
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The greater the order the ______ the entropy
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Lower
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the greater the DISorder the _____ the entropy
|
higher
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Entropy (S) formula
|
S = Sfinal - S initial
S = S prod - S reactants |
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2nd law of thermodynamics
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all spontaneous processes proceed such that the entropy of the system plus its surroundings increases
S universe = S system + S surroundings = 0 |
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1st law of thermodynamics
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energy is neither created nor destroyed but conserved
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Gibbs Free Energy
|
Delta G = delta H - (T delta S)
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- G (spont/nonspont)
|
spontaneous
|
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+G (spont/nonspont)
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nonspontaneous
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When G = 0
|
system is at equilibrium therefore G = 0, and H = TS
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-H and +S
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spontaneous at all temperatures
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+H and S-
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nonspontaneous at all temperatures
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+H and + S
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spontaneous at HIGH temps
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-H and -S
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spontaneous at LOW temps
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STP for gases
|
1 atm, 273.15K or 0 Degrees C
|
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Boyle's Law
|
P1V1=P2V2
|
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Charles Law
|
V1/T1 = V2/T2
|
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Ideal Gas Law
|
PV=nRT
R = gas constant 1 mole of gas = 22.4 L R = 8.21 x 10 -2 L atm/ mol*K |
|
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Deviations due to pressure
|
at HIGH pressure a gas's volume is LESS than predicted
|
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Deviation due to Temp
|
at LOW temp the gas has a SMALLER volume than predicted
|
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Dalton's Law of Partial Pressure
|
Pt = Pa + Pb + Pc
Pa = PtXa Xa= moles of A/ total moles |
|
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Diffusion
|
r1/r2 = (mm2/mm1) to 1/2 = square root of (mm2/mm1)
|
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Effusion
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r1/r2 = mm2/mm1 to 1/2
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Miscibility
|
ability of liquids to mix
|
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Fusion/Melting
|
transition from solid to liquid
|
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Solidification/crystallizaiton/freezing
|
from liquid to solid
|
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Sublimination
|
when solid goes to gas and skips liquid phase
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Colligative properties
|
derived from number of particles present, not nature of those particles
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Freezing point depression
|
Tf = i Kf m
Kf of water is 1.86 C m-1 |
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boiling point elevation
|
Tb = i Kb m
Kb water is 0.51 C m-1 |
|
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Solution
|
solute dispersed in a solvent
|
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Solvation/ dissolution
|
interaction between solute and solvent molecules
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Solubility
|
max amount of substance that can be dissolved in a particular solvent at a particular temperature
|
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Fe 2+
|
Ferrous
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Fe 3+
|
Ferric
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Cu +
|
Cuprous
|
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Cu 2+
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Cupric
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H-
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Hydride
|
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F-
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Fluoride
|
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O2-
|
Oxide
|
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S2
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Sulfide
|
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N3
|
Nitride
|
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P3
|
Phosphide
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NO2 -
|
Nitrite
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NO3 -
|
Nitrate
|
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SO3 2-
|
Sulfite
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SO4 2-
|
Sulfate
|
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ClO -
|
Hypochlorite
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ClO2 -
|
Chlorite
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ClO3 -
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Chlorate
|
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ClO4 -
|
Perchlorate
|
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Molarity
|
number of moles of solute per liter of solution
|
|
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Molality
|
number of moles of solute per kg of solvent
|
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Normality
|
number of GEQ of solute per liter of solution
|
|
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Dilution
|
a solution is diluted when solvent is added to a solution of high concentration to produce a solution of lower concentration
MiVi = MfVf |
|
|
Q sp > K sp
|
precip will occur
|
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Q sp < K sp
|
dissolution can continue until the solution is saturated
|
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Q = K
|
solution is at equilibrium
|
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|
Common ion effect
|
solubility of a salt is reduced when it is dissolved in a solution that already contains one of its ions rather than in pure solvent
|
|
|
Arrhenius Acids and bases
|
Acid produces a H+ proton
Base produces OH- for aq sol. only |
|
|
Bronsted Lowry Acid and Base
|
PROTON BASED
Acid donates protons Base accepts protons |
|
|
Lewis Acid and Base
|
ELECTRON BASED
Acid is electron acceptor Base is electron donor |
|
|
Every BL acid is a Lewis acid
|
True
|
|
|
Every Lewis Acid is a BL Acid
|
False. Lewis is most specific, and most nested
|
|
|
pH =
|
pH = = log [H+]
|
|
|
Kw =
|
Kw = [H+][OH-] 10 -14
|
|
|
pH + pOH =
|
14
|
|
|
Once you are in power of 10 the pH is simply the + value of the exponent
|
True. H+= 0.001 or 10 -3 , pH= 3
|
|
|
The weaker the acid, the _______ (smaller/larger) the Ka
|
smaller
|
|
|
A weak acid of 6-7 has a SMALL Ka
|
True
|
|
|
An acid of 1-3 has a LARGE Ka
|
True
|
|
|
Henderson Hasselbach Equation
|
ph= pKa + log ([conj. base]/[weak acid])
|
|
|
Oxidation
|
loss of electrons
|
|
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Reduction
|
gain of electrons
|
|
|
oxidizing agent
|
thing that is reduced
|
|
|
reducing agent
|
thing that is oxidized
|
|
|
For oxidation numbers, free elements are assigned a 0
|
True
|
|
|
2 types of electrochemical cells
|
Galvanic (voltaic), electrolytic
|
|
|
Galvanic cells are (spont/nonspont)
|
Spontaneous (-G)
|
|
|
Electrolytic cells are (spont/nonspont)
|
Nonspontaneous (+G)
|
|
|
An OX RED CAT
|
Mnemonic
|
|
|
Oxidation occurs at
|
ANODE
|
|
|
Reduction occurs at
|
Cathode
|
|
|
Electrons always flow from the (anode/cathode) to the (anode/cathode)
|
from the anode to the cathode
|
|
|
Electrolytic cell has (+/-) anode and (+/-) cathode
|
positive anode, negative cathode
|
|
|
Galvanic cells have a (+/-) anode and cathode
|
Galvanic has a negative anode and positive cathode
|
|
|
When comparing two reduction potentials the one with the greater (more positive E) will proceed as written
|
so typically reverse the sign of the lower one, and add the two together
|
|
|
EMF =
|
EMF = E red + E ox
|
|
|
EMF and Gibbs
|
Delta G = -nFEcell
|
|
|
Nernst equation
|
E cell = E*cell - (RT/nF)(ln Q)
|
