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125 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
The most abundant elements in all living things.
CHONPS
Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Phosphorus, Sulfur
Hydrogen's most important function
donation of electrons for energy transfer
Nirtrogen's most important function
structure of amino acids and formation of nitrogenous bases in DNA and RNA.
Oxygen's most important function
necessary in cellular respiration and as a final electron acceptor in metabolic pathways in the formation of water
Phosphorus' most important function
abundant in ATP and also helps to form the backbone of DNA and RNA
Sulfur's most important function
forms diculfide bonds and is found in proteins, giving them their structure which affects their function
Ahesion
is when water sticks to other substances like the xylem of a stem which aids the water in traveling up the stem to the leaves
Cohesion
water molecules stick together. this allows for surface tension on a body of water or capillarity which allows water to move through vessels.
Properties of water
1. good solvent. provides medium for chemical reactions to occur.
2. has a high specific heat. cools and warms slowly allowing organisms to adapt to temperature changes.
3. has a high boiling point
4. it's a good coolant. its ability to evaporate allos organism to maintain body temp.
5. has a high freezing point and lower density as a solid than as a liquid. it's most dense at at four degrees centigrade.
The four major chemical compounds fourn in the cells and bodies of living things
Carbs, Lipids, Proteins, Nucleic Acids
Monomers
The simplist unit of structure. Can be combined to for polymers, or long chains, making a large variety of molecules possible. Combine through condensation reaction (dehydration synthesis)
Condensation reaction
a molecule of water is removed between each adjoining molecule to form a polymer
Hydrolysis
breaks the molecules apart in a polymer, water is added
Carbohydrates
contain a ration of two H for each C and O. include sugars and starches. function in the release of energy.
Monosaccharides
the simplest sugars and include glucose, fructose, and galactose
Disaccharides
are made by joining two monosaccharides.
Maltose
is formed from the comination of two glucose molecules
Lactose
formed from the combination of glucose and galactose
Sucrose
formed from the combination of glucose and fructose
Pliysaccharides
consist of many monomers joined. Starch, glycogen, cellulose, chitin
Starch
major energy storage molecule in plants
Glycogen
major energy storage moleucule in animals
Cellulose
found in plant cell walls, its function is structural. many animals lack the enzymes necessary to hydrolyze cellulose, so it simply adds fiber to the diet
chitin
found in the exoskelton of arthropods and fungi. contains an amino sugar (glycoprotein)
Lipids
composed of glycerol (an alcohol) and three fatty acids. may be saturated and contain only dingle bonds or saturated and contain at least one double bond or tripple bond between carbons. unsaturated fats are easier to break down. consist of waxes, oils, and fats. Waxes are found in feathers, skin, hair and the epidermis of plants. They help to repel water. Oils are liquid at room temperature and normally come from plant sources. Fats are solid at room temperature and come from animal sources. Important lipids include phospholipids and steriods.
Phospholipids
in a phospholipid, one or two fatty acids are replaced by a phosphate group linked to a nitrogen group. Polar, hydrophilic heat and nonpolar, hydrophobic tails.
Steroids
insoluble and contain colesterol. hormones like cortisone, testosterone, estrogen and progesterone are steroids.
Proteins
Compose about 50% of the dry weight of animals and bacteria. Function in structure and aid in support (connective tissue, hair, feathers, quills),

storage of amino acids (albumin in eggs, casein in milk),

transport of substances (hemoglobin),

hormonal to coordinate body activities (insulin),

membrane receptor protiens,

contraction (muscles, cilia, flagella),

body defense (antibodies),

and as enzymes to speed up chemical reactions.
Proteins are made of
22 amino acids.
Amino acid contains
an amino group and and acid group
Amino acids form what kind of reactions and form what kind of bonds?
Think of it as the alphbet
condensation reactions with the removal of water. the bond that is formed is called a peptide bond. The amino acids are the letters of the alphabet that combine to form words.
Enzymes
catalysts that speed up reactions. no used in in a reaction and are recyclable. each is used for a specific single reaction. they are the most diverse of all proteins. act on a substrate which is the material to be broken down or put back together.
lock and key theory
the shape of the enzyme is specific because it fits into the subtrate like a key fits into a lock. it aids in holding molecules close together so reactions can more easily occur.
coenzymes and cofactors
aid in the enxymes's function. example: vitamins
allosteric enzyme
exist in two shpaes; they are active in one form and inactive in the other. overactive enzymes may cause metabolic diseases.
allosteric inhibition
when a competitive molecule with a shpae close to the substrate binds to an enzyme and leaves it inactuve. inhibitors may be used to treat metabolic diseases or may cause diseases, depending on the enzyme.
nucleic acids
consist of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid). contain instructions for the amino acid sequence of proteins and the instructions for making more of themselves.
nucleotides
the monomer of nucleic acids. consists of a 5 carbon sugar (deoxyribose in DNA, ribose in RNA) a phosphate group and a nitrogenous base. the base sequence codes for the instructions.
5 necleotide bases
adenine, thymine, cytosine, and uracil. Uracil is found only in RNA and replaces thymine in DNA.
two types of cells
prokaryotic and eukaryotic
prokaryotic celss
only bacteria and blue-green algae.

no membrane bound organelles

no defined nucleus - DNA and ribosomes float freely in the cell

thick cell wall for protection, to give shape, and to keep from bursting

cell walls contain amino sugars (glycoproteins)

some have capsule made of polysaccharides that make the bacteria sticky (like on your teeth)

some have pili which is a protein strand. this allows for the sttachment of the bacteria and may be used for sexual reproduction called conjugation

some have flagella for movement
eukaryotic cells
found in protists, fungi, plants, and animals

usually larger than prokaryotic cells

have organelles, membrane bound

contain cyctoskeleton which provides a protein framework for the cell.

contain cytoplasm to support the organelles and contain the ions and molecules necessary for cell function
nucleus
the brain of the cell. it contains:

chromosomes, chromatin, nucleoli, nuclear membrane
ribosomes
the site of protein synth. may be free floatingin the cyctoplasm or attached to the ER. there may be up to a half a million in a cell depending on how much protein is made by the cell.
ER
folded for large surface area. they are the roadway to transport materials within and out of the cell. the lumen helps to keep materials out o fthe cytoplasm and headed in the right direction. it's capable of building new membrane material. there are two types
smooth ER
contain no ribosomes on the surface.
rough ER
contain ribosomes on the surface. this is abundant in cells that make many proteins like the pancreas, which produces many digestive enzymes.
Golgi Complex
stacked structurethat functions to sort, modify, and package molucules that are made in other parts of the celss. these molecules are either sent out of the cell or to other organelles within the cell
Lysosomes
found mainly in animal cells. contain digestive enzymes that break down food substances not needed, viruses, damaged cells parts, and are responsible for the aging process.
Mitochondria
large organelles that make ATP to supply energy to the cell. muscle cells have many because they use a great deal of energy. the folds inside are called cristae. have their own DNA and are capable of reproducing themselves if a greater demand is made for additional energy
Plastids
found in photosynthetic organisms only. they are similar to the mitochondria due to the double membrane structure. the have their own DNAand can reproduce if the need for the increased capture of sunlight becomes necessary. There are several types
chloroplasts
a type of plastid. green, function in photosynthesis. they are capable of trapping sunlight.
chromoplasts
a type of plastid. make and store yellow and orange pigments to leaves, flowers, and fruits.
amyloplasts
a type of plastid. store starch and are used as food reserve. they are abundant in roots like potatoes.
endosymbionic theory
the thoery that states that mitochondria and chloroplasts were once free living and possibly evolved from prokaryotic cells.
cell wall
foundin plant cells only, they are composed of cellulose and fibers. the are thick enough for support and protection yet porous enough to allow water and dissolved substances to enter.
vacuoles
hold stored food, pigments. vacuoles are very large in plants which allows them to fill with water in order to provide turgor pressure. lack of turgor pressure causes plant to wilt.
cytoskeleton
composed of protein filaments attached to the plasma membrane and organelles. provide the framework for the cell and aid in cell movement. constantly change shape and move about. there are three types of fibers that make up the cytoskeleton.
microtubules
largest of the three types of fibers that make of the cytockeleton. they make up cilia and flagella for locomotion. the flagella grows from a basal body. some examples are sperm cells, cilia that line the fallopian tubes and tracheal cilia. centrioles are composed of these. they aid in cell division to form the spindle fibers that pull the cell apart into two new cells. centrioles are not found in th cells of higher plants.
intermediate filiaments
the are smaller than microtubules but larger than microfilaments. they help the cell to keep its shape.
microfilaments
smallest of the three fibers that make up the cytoskeleton. they are made of actin and small amounts of myosin (like muscle cells). they function in cell movement like cytoplasmic streaming, endocytosis, and amoeboid movement. the structure pinches the two cells part after cell division, forming two new cells
passive transport
does not require energy and moves the material with the concentration gradient (high to low). small molecules may pass through this way. two examples include osmosis and diffusion.
diffusion
the ability molecules to move from areas of high concentration to low concentration. in normally involves small uncharges particles like oxygen.
osmosis
the diffusion of water
isotonic
water concentration is equal inside and outside the cell. there is no net movement in either direction
hypertonic
more water outside the cell then inside.
hypotonic
more water inside the cell
facilitated diffusion
does not require energy but it does require a carrier protein. and example would be insulin, which is needed to carry glucose into the cell
active transport
requires energy that comes from either ATP or an electrical charge difference. mabe move materials either with or against a conc. gradient. involves membrane potential which is a charge on the membrane that works like a magnet. some examples include calcium pumps, stomach acid pumps, sodium-potassium pump.
calcium pumps
actively pump calcium outside the cell and important in nerve and muscle function.
stomach acid pump
ecports H ions to lower the pH of the stomach and increase acidity
sodium-potassium pump
maintains an electrical difference across the cell. this is useful in the transport of charged particles
transport of large molecules
this depends on the fluidity of the membrane that is controlled by cholesterol in the membrane. ex: exocytosis, pinocytosis, receptor mediated endocytosis
exocytosis
the release of large particles
pinocytosis
the release of fluid droplets
receptor mediated endocytosis
membranes vesicles bud inward to allow a cell to take in large amounts of certain substances. the vesicles have proteins with receptors that are specific for the substance.
Mitosis
1. division of somatic cell
2. two cells result from each division
3. chromosome number is identical to parent
4. for cell growth and repair
Meiosis
1. division of sex cells
2. four cells or polar bodies result from each division
3. chromosome number is half the cell's number or parent cells
4. recombinations provide genetic diversity
gamete
sex cell or germ cell; eggs and sperm
chromatin
loose chromosomesl this state is found when the ell is not dividing
chromosome
tightly coiled; wisible chromatin, this state is found when the cell is dividing
homologues
chromosomes that contain the same information. they are of the same length and contain the same genes.
diploid
2n number, diploid chromosomes are a pair of chromosomes (somatic cells)
haploid
1n number; haploid chromosomes are half of a pair (sex cells)
Interphase
G1 - growth where the cell is grouing and metabolizing
S period - synthesis where new DNA and enzymes are being made
G2 - growth where proteins and organelles are being made to prepare for cell division.

chromatin is loose, chromosomes are replicated, cell metabolism is occurring. technically not a stage.
IPMAT
Interphase, Prophase, Metaphase, Telophase
Interphase
chromatin is loose, chromosomes are replicated, cell metabolism is occurring. technically not a stage
Prophase
once the cell enters this stage it proceeds through the following steps continuously, with no stopping. the chromatin condenses to become visible chromosomes. the nucleolus disappears and the nuclear membrane breaks apart. mitotic spindles form that will eventually pull the chromosomes apart. they are composedof microtubules. the cytoskeleton breaks down and the spindles are pushed to the poles or opposite ends of the cell by the action of centrioles.
Metaphase
kinetechore fivers attach to the chromosomes which causes the chromosomes to line up in the center of the cell
Anaphase
centromeres split in half and homologous chromosomesseparate. the chromosomes are pulled to the poles of the cell, with identicalsets at either end. (think apart for anaphase)
Telophase I
two new cells are formed, chromosome number is still diploid
Major function of Meiosis II
to reduce the chromosome number in half
Prophase II
chromosomes condense
Metaphase II
spindle fibers for again, sister chromatids line up in center of cell. centromeres divide and sister chromatids separate
Anaphase II
separated chromosomes move to opposite ends of the cell
Telophase II
four hapoid cells form for each original sperm germ cell. one viable egg cell gets all the genetic info and three polar bodies form with no DNA. the nuclear membrane reforms and cytokinesis occurs.
Energy
the capacity to do work. ex: heat, light, chemical, electrical.
Laws of Thermodynamics
1 - law of conservation
2 - when changed to another form, some E is lost as heat. ex: food pyramid
Activation Energy
the energy required to get a reaction started. organisms must invest some energy to make more energy
Exergonic Reaction
produces less energy than the reactants. release of energy. ex: respiration - - glucose (energy containing compound) is broken down to individual atems. the breakingof bonds causes a release of energy in the form of work. prefix ex- means out.
Catabolism
a form of exergonic reaction. these break down molecules.
endergonic reaction
in input of additional energy from another source is needed. the products of these reactions contain more energy than the reactants. ex: photosynthesis - - CO2 and Water are put together to make glucose. when bonds are formed they hold potential energy. the prefix endo- means energy is held in
Anabolism
a form of endergonic reaction. they build up a molecule. think of anabolic steroids that are used to build up muscle.
Substrate Level Phosphorylation
enzymes transfer phophate groups to add to ADP, making ATP. simply means to add a phosphate group.
Chemiosmosis
involves and electrical membrane potential and a transfer of hydrogen ions across a concentration gradient. more ATP is generated by this than by SLP.
Gregor Mendel
the father of genetics. worked with pea plants
law of dominance
in a pair of alleles, one trait may cover up the allele of the other trait ex: brown eyes are dominant to blue eyes
Law of Segregation
only one of the two possible alleles from each parent is passed on to the offspring from each parent. (during meiosis, the haploid number insures that half the sex cells get one allele, half get the other
Law of Independent assortment
alleles sort independently of each other. (many combos are possible depending on which sperm ends up with which egg. compare this to the many combos of hands possible when dealing a deck of cards.
dominant
the stronger of the two traits. if a dominant gene is present it will be expressed. shown by a capital letter.
recessive
the weaker of the two traits. in order for the recessive gene to be expressed there must be two recessive genes present. shown by a lower case letter
homozygous
purebred - RR or rr
heterozygous
hybrid - Rr the dominant gene will be expressed.
monohybrid cross
a cross using only one trait
dihybrid cross
a cross using two traits. more combos are possible
genotype
the genes the organism has.
phenotype
the expression of the trait
punnet squares
shows possible gene combos. one parent on top one on the side
incomplete dominance
neither gene masks th other. a new phenotype is formed. ex: red flowers and white flowers may have equal strength. a heterozygote (Rr) would have pink flowers.
codominance
genes may form new phenotypes. the ABO blood typing is an example of codominance. A and B are of equal dominance and I is recessive .
linkage
genes that are found on the same chromosome usually appear together unless crossing over has occurred in meiosis (ex: blue eyes and blone hair)
lethal alleles
there are usually recessive due to the early death of the offspring. if a 2:1 ratio of alleles is found in offspring, a lethal gene combo is usually the reason. some examples of lethal allels include sickle cell anemia, tay-sachs and cystic fibrosis. usually the coding for an important protein is attached.
inborn errors of metabolism
these occur when the protein affected is an enzyme. ex: PKU (phenylketonuria) and albinism.
polygenetic characters
many alleles code for a phenotype. there may be as many as 20 genes that code for skin color. this is why there is such a vareity of skin tones. another example is height. a could of medium height may have very tall offspring.
sex linked traits
the Y chromosome found only in males (XY) carries very little genetic info whereas the X chromosome found in femailes (XX) carries bery important infor. since men have no second X to cover up a recessive gene the recessive trait is expressed more often in men. women need the recessive gene on both X chromosomes to show the trait. examples of sex linked traits include hemophelia and color-blindness.