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166 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Define crime. |
Crime is defined as an act committed in violation of the law where the consequence of the conviction by a court is punishment. |
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Give examples of crime. |
Dropping litter Riding a bike on the pavement Illegally downloading music Not wearing a seatbelt |
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What the problems with defining crime? |
Cultural issues Historical issues |
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What is a cultural issue with defining crime?
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Behaviours considered to be acts of crime in one culture may not be judged as such in another. |
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Give an example of cultural issues with defining crime. |
In the UK having more than 1 wife is a crime of bigamy but it is not a crime in cultures such as Saudi Arabia where polygamy is practised. |
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What is a historical issue with defining crime? |
Definitions of crime and behaviours viewed as acts of crime also change over time. |
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Give an example of a historical issue with defining crime. |
A parent's right to smack their child was previously considered acceptable however the introduction of the Children's Act in 2001 made such behaviour illegal. |
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Give an example of crimes which are historically and culturally specific. |
Until 1967 homosexuality was considered a crime in the UK and even now in some African and Asian cultures it is considered illegal. |
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Define official statistics. |
Official statistics are government records of the total number of crimes reported to the police and recorded in official figures. The figures are published by the Home Office annually. |
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Define victim surveys. |
These surveys experience of crime of a specific period (e.g. the Crime survey for England and Wales) asks people to document the crimes they have been a victim of in the last year/ |
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How are victim surveys conducted? |
- Face to face interviews conducted with households of 10+ years. - 50,000 households are randomly selected to take part in the interview process. - Asked to document their experiences of crime they have been a victim to 12 months prior to the interview. - Separate survey for 10-15 year olds is conducted. |
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What can official statistics be used for? |
Allows the government to develop crime prevention strategies and policing initiatives, as well as direct resources to those areas most in need. |
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Define offender surveys. |
Individuals volunteer details of the number and types of crimes they have committed; mostly targeting groups of likely offenders based on 'risk' factors. |
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What was the first offender survey completed in the UK? |
The Offender Crime and Justice Survey, which ran from 2003-2006, was the first national self-report survey on offending. As well as measuring offending the OCJS looked at the indicators of repeat offending, drug and alcohol abuse and the role of co-offenders. |
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Evaluate victim surveys. |
+ More valid than official statistics. - Retrospective data/telescoping (incident is so traumatic that the victim remembers it being closer in time than it actually was). + Prevalence rates of different crimes can be compared over time. |
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Evaluate offender surveys. |
+ Gives valid indication of how many people are responsible for a certain offence. - Social desirability. - Targeting offender groups means that some crimes may be over/under represented. |
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Evaluate the Crime Survey for England and Wales. |
+ National survey representing the whole of England and Wales (demonstrates long term crime trends). + Covers crimes not reported to the police and is not affected by changes in police recording practise. - Retrospective data. - Excludes offences that have no victim to be interviewed (e.g homocides and drug offences). |
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Evaluate police recorded crime. |
+ Has wider offence coverage than CSEW. + Time lag between occurence of crime and reporting results tend to be short, providing an indication of emerging trends. - Excludes offences that are not reported to, or not recorded by the police. - Trends can be influenced by changes in recording practises or police activity. |
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How much crime is reported to the police and how much crime goes unaccounted for? |
25% - reported to the police 75% - 'Dark figures' |
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Give an example of differences in police recording practises. |
Nottinghamshire police were more likely than other regions to report thefts of under £10 which explained the spike of thefts in this area compared to others. |
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Define offender profiling. |
Also known as 'criminal profiling' a behavioural and analytical tool that is intended to help investigators accurately predict and profile the characteristics of unknown criminals. |
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Define the bottom-up approach. |
The aim of the bottom-up approach is to generate a picture of the offender - their likely characteristics, routine behaviour and social background - through systematic analysis of evidence of the crime scene. |
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Give two examples of the bottom-up approach. |
Investigative psychology Geographical profiling |
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Define investigative psychology. |
An attempt to apply statistical procedures, along with psychological theory to analyse crime scene evidence. |
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How does investigative psychology work? |
- Aim is to establish patterns of behaviour which may occur (co-exist) across crime scenes. - Develop a statistical database which then acts as a baseline for comparison. - Specific details of an offence or related offences can then be matched against this database to reveal important details about the offender, their personal history or family background. - Also used to determine whether a series of offences are linked. |
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Name 3 features of investigative psychology. |
Interpersonal coherence Significance of time and place Forensic awareness |
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Define interpersonal coherence as a part of investigative psychology. |
The way an offender behaves, including how they 'interact' with the victim, may reflect their everyday behaviours. |
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Define the significance of time and place as a part of investigative psychology. |
Key variable as it may indicate where the offender is living. |
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Define forensic awareness as a part of investigative psychology. |
Describes those individuals who have been the subject of police investigations before; their behaviour may denote how mindful they are of covering their tracks. |
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Define geographical profiling. |
Used in conjunction with psychological theory informed by investigative psychology to create a profile and understand how the offender is thinking or their 'modus operandi'. |
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How does does geographical profiling work? |
- Information from the crime scenes are used to make inferences about the likely home or operational base of an offender. this called crime mapping. |
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Define Canter's circle theory. |
- Devised by Canter & Larkin (1993) - Proposes that there are two models of offenders behaviour and that is it possible to establish a centre of gravity for where the offender is likely to be based. - Based on the criminal consistency hypothesis. |
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What two models did Canter propose for his Circle theory? |
Marauder Offenders Commuter Offenders |
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Define marauder offenders. |
- Commit crimes around the area in which they live. - Crimes are further spread. - Do try to hide their identity. |
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Define commuter offenders. |
- Commit crimes around an area that they have commuted to and so may have some familiarity with (i.e. local supermarkets or a friends house). - Crimes tend to be closer together. - Do not try to hide their identity. |
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Define the criminal consistency hypothesis. |
The idea that criminals will display consistency and similarity between their crimes.
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What two parts of the criminal consistency hypothesis are there? |
Interpersonal consistency Spatial consistency |
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Describe interpersonal consistency as part of the criminal consistency hypothesis. |
- Criminals will have a level of social competency. - May seduce their victims. - E.g Jeffery Dahmer |
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Describe spatial consistency as part of the criminal consistency hypothesis. |
- Criminal will commit a crime in an area which they think is familiar even if it is not familiar in terms of them knowing the area. - E.g. Adrain Babb |
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Define the top-down approach. |
Profilers stat with a pre-established typology and work down in order to assign offenders to one of two categories based on witness accounts and evidence from the crime scene. Originated from the FBI in the USA. |
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What two types of offenders can be categorised by the top-down approach? |
Organised offenders Disorganised offenders |
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Define an organised offender. |
- Show evidence of planning the crime in advance. - Victims are deliberately targeted and will reflect a certain 'type'. - A high degree of control is maintained and so little evidence is left behind at the crime scene. - Organised offenders have higher levels of intelligence, work in a skilled/professional occupation and are socially or sexually competent. - They are usually married. |
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Define a disorganised offender. |
- Show little evidence of planning the crime in advance. The offence may be spontaneous. - The crime scene reflects an impulsive nature of the attack (i.e. a body left at the scene showing little control). - Disorganised offenders have lower than average levels of intelligence, be unemployed or in an unskilled profession and have a history of sexual dysfunction and failed relationships. - They tend to live alone and relatively close to where the crime took place. |
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How do you construct an FBI profile? |
1. Data assimilation - the profiler reviews the evidence (crime scene photographs, pathology reports etc). 2. Crime scene classification - as either organised or disorganised. 3. Crime scene reconstruction - hypotheses in terms of sequence of events, behaviour of the victim etc. 4. Profile generation - hypotheses related to the likely offender, e.g. of demographic background, physical characteristics, behaviour etc. |
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Evaluate the top-down approach. |
- Only applies to certain types of crime (rape/murder) - Lack of research support (Canter et al 2004) - Too simplistic as there are only two offender types. - Outdated, based on the assumption that all offenders have distinct behavioural patterns and motivations. - Original methodology used self-report and a sample of 36 killers. |
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Evaluate the bottom-up approach. |
+ Addresses the issues with top-down (can be applied to a wide range of offences) + Research support (investigative psychology - Canter & Heritage 1990; Geographical profiling - Lundrigan & Canter 2011). + More objective (scientific) - Lacks consistency (Copson 1995 & Kocsis et al 2002) |
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Describe Copson's (1995) study on the consistency of the bottom-up approach. |
- Surveyed 48 police forces - Found that the advice provided by the profiler was judged to be 'useful' in 83% of cases - Only 3% did it lead to accurate identification of the offender. |
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Describe Kocsis et al. (2002) study on the consistency of the bottom-up approach. |
- Found that chemistry students produced a more accurate offender profile on a solved murder case than experienced senior detectives. |
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Describe Canter & Heritage's (1990) study as research support of investigative psychology as part of the bottom-up approach. |
- Content analysis of 60 sexual assault cases. - Data examined using smallest space analysis. - Several characteristics were identified such as impersonal language/lack of reaction to victim. - Demonstrates how statistical testing can be applied to offender profiling. |
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Define smallest space analysis. |
Computer programme which identifies correlations across patterns of behaviour. |
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Describe Lundrigan & Canter's (2001) study as research support of geographical profiling as part of the bottom-up approach. |
- Info from 120 murder cases - Smallest space analysis revealed spatial consistency - Offenders have their base located in the centre |
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Describe Canter et al. (2004) study as lack of research support for the top-down approach. |
- Used smallest space analysis to analyse data from 100 offenders in USA with reference to the 39 characteristics thought to be typical of organised and disorganised offenders. - Evidence found to support organised offenders but was inconsistent with disorganised offenders. |
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Who devised the atavistic form? |
Lombroso |
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What did Lombroso suggest about criminals that made them turn to crime? |
- Criminals are 'genetic throwbacks' - a primitive subspecies who were biologically different from non-criminals. - Criminals lack evolutionary development, their savage and untamed nature meant that they would find it impossible to adjust to the demands of civilised society and would inevitably turn to crime. - Criminality is a natural tendency rooted in the genealogy of those who engage in it. |
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Define atavistic characteristics. |
Lombroso argued that the criminal subtype could be identified as being in possession of particular physiological 'markers' that were linked to particular types of crime. These are biological 'atavistic' characteristics, mainly features of the face and head that make criminals physically different from the rest of us. |
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Describe the cranial characteristics of criminals. |
- Narrow slopping brow - Strong prominent jaw - High cheekbones - Facial asymmetry |
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Describe the psychical and facial characteristics of criminals. |
- Dark skin - Extra toes, nipples or fingers - Insensitivity to pain - Use of criminal slang - Tattoos - Unemployment |
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Describe the psychical and facial characteristics of murderers. |
- Bloodshot eyes - Curly hair - Long ears |
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Describe the psychical and facial characteristics of sexual deviants. |
- Glinting eyes - Swollen fleshy lips - Projecting ears |
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Describe the psychical and facial characteristics of fraudsters. |
Lips are thin and 'reedy' |
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Describe Lombro's research to illustrate atavistic characteristics. |
- Examined 383 dead and 3839 living Italian criminals and concluded that 40% of criminal acts could be accounted for by atavistic characteristics. - Proposed that the atavistic form was associated with a number of physical abnormalities which were key indicators of criminality. |
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Evaluate Lombroso's research. |
- Poor level of control (no control group and didn't account for EV's) - Cannot establish causal relationship (poor hygiene or poverty may be causes of their facial/cranial features) |
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Evaluate the atavistic form. |
+ Father of modern criminology (shift from moralistic discourse to evolutionary influences and genetics) - Lack of consistent research (Goring 1913) - Scientific racism (Eugenics movement - social and cultural bias) - Nature side of nature vs nurture debate. |
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What two branches of the biological explanation of offending behaviour are there? |
Genetic explanations Neural explanations |
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Explain the genetic explanations for offending behaviour.
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Genetic explanations for crime suggest tat would be offenders inherit a gene or a combination of genes, that predispose them to commit a crime. |
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Describe twin studies as part of the genetic explanations for offending behaviour. |
Lange (1930) - 13 MZ and 17 DZ twins where 1 of each twin has spent time in prison. 10 of the MZ but only 2 of the DZ twin had a twin who was also in prison. Christiansen (1977) - 87 MZ and 147 DZ pairs and found a concordance rate of 33% for MZ and 12% for DZ twins. |
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Describe diathesis stress model as part of the genetic explanations for offending behaviour. |
- Tendency toward criminal behaviour may be due to a combination of genetic predisposition and biological/psychological triggers. - E.g. Being raised in a dysfunctional environment or having criminal role models. |
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Describe candidate genes as part of the genetic explanations for offending behaviour. |
Tiihonen (2014) - 900 offenders revealled abnormalities on two genes that may be associated with violent crime; MAOA gene (controls dopamine and serotonin and is linked with aggression) and CDH14 (linked to substance abuse and ADHD). Within the sample, individuals with the high risk combinations were 13x more likely to have a history of violent behaviour. |
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Explain the neural explanations for offending behaviour. |
Evidence suggests there may be neural differences in the brains of criminals and non-criminals. Much of the evidence in this area has investigated individuals with antisocial personality disorder (APD). APD is associated with reduced emotional responses, lack of empathy for the feelings of others and is a condition that characterises many convicted criminals. |
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Describe prefrontal cortex as part of the neural explanations for offending behaviour. |
- Raine reported that there are several dozen brain imaging studies demonstrating that individuals with antisocial personality disorder had reduced activity in the prefrontal cortex. - Raine et al. (2000) found an 11% reduction in the prefrontal cortex of people with APD compared to controls. |
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Describe mirror neurons as part of the neural explanations for offending behaviour. |
- Keysers et al. (2011) found that criminals withAPD when asked to empathise with a person experiencing pain on film did their empathy reaction (controlled by mirror neurons) activate. - Suggests that APD individuals are not totally without empathy but have a neural switch that can be turned on, unlike the normal brain which has the empathy switch permanently turned on. |
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Evaluate the genetic explanation for offending behaviour. |
- Methodological issues with twin studies (small sample size, poor control - don't represent the entire population). - Biologically reductionist (doesn't consider the role of the environment - Mednick et al 1984) - Nature side of the nature/nurture debate (use diathesis stress model). |
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Evaluate the neural explanation of offending behaviour. |
- Cannot establish causal relationship (criminal behaviour may have caused the reduced activity in prefrontal cortex - possible EV) |
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Describe Mednick et al. (1984) research into genetic explanations of offending behaviour. |
- Used 13,000 danish adoptees - Researchers defined criminal behaviour as being in possession of a court conviction which was checked against police records. - Mednick found that when neither the biological or adoptive parents had convictions 13.5% of adoptees had a conviction. - The figure rose to 20% when either of the biological parents had convictions. - Then to 24.5% when both adoptive and biological parents had convictions. |
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Describe how Eysenck explained offending behaviour. |
Eysenck believed that our personality traits are innate and come about through the nervous systems that we inherit. He believed that personality traits could be represented along two dimensions: Introvert vs Extrovert Neuroticism vs Stability |
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Describe Eysenck's 'criminal personality'. |
He believed that a criminal personality could be identified based on a person's score for each of the 4 dimensions; Introvert vs Extrovert Neuroticism vs Stability A criminal personality was neurotic and extroverted. |
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Define the Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI). |
- Measures personality types including the criminal personality. - Form of psychological testing. - Third scale was later introduced to measure a new dimension of psychoticism. |
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Define extrovert. |
The need to constantly seek excitement, stimulation and are likely to engage in risk-taking behaviour. |
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Define neuroticism. |
Nervous, jumpy and overly anxious, unpredictable and unstable behaviours. |
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Define psychoticism. |
Cold, unemotional, aggressive offender. |
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Describe the biological bias of Eysenck's personality theory. |
- Personality traits are biological in origin and come about due to the type of nervous system we inherit. - Extroverts have an under active nervous system which means they are constantly seek simulation and are likely to engage in risk-taking behaviour. ; they also tend to not learn from mistakes and tend not to condition easily. |
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Describe the role of socialisation of Eysenck's personality theory. |
- Criminal behaviour is developmentally immature in that it is selfish and concerned with immediate gratification - they are impatient and cannot wait for things. - The process of socialisation is where children are taught to become more able to delay gratification and more socially orientated. - People who score highly on E & N were difficult to condition due to their inherited nervous systems. - The consequence of this is that they are more likely to act antisocially in situations where the opportunity presented itself. |
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Evaluate Eysenck's personality theory. |
- Lack of research support (Farrington et al 1982 and Bartol and Holanchock) - Cannot establish cause and effect (personality can change depending on where you are and who you're with/some people with high scores of E/N aren't criminals) - Not all offenders have a single type of criminal personality (Digman added openness, agreeableness and conscientiousness) + Research support (Eysenck & Eysenck 1977) |
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Describe Eysenck & Eysenck's (1977) research on Eysenck's personality theory |
- Compared 2070 male prisoners scores on the EPI with 2422 male controls. - Divided into age groups ranging from 16 years to 69 years. - Found support for higher scores on extraversion and neuroticism. |
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Describe Farrington et al (1982) research on Eysenck's personality theory |
- Reviewed several studies and found offenders scored higher on levels of P but not E or N. |
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Describe Bartol and Holanchock's research on Eysenck's personality theory. |
- Investigated hispanic and African-American offenders in New York. - Split into 6 groups based on criminal history and nature of offence. - Found that all 6 groups of offenders were less extroverted than the non-criminal groups. |
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Define moral reasoning. |
Refers to the process by which a person draws upon their own value system to determine whether an action is right or wrong. |
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What does Kohlberg suggest about the concept of moral reasoning when applied to criminal behaviour? |
He proposed that people's judgements on issues of right and wrong can be summaries in a stage theory of moral development. Kohlberg based his theory on people's responses to a series of moral dilemmas. He proposed that the higher the stage of moral development the more sophisticated the reasoning. |
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Describe level 1 of moral reasoning; pre conventional morality. |
Stage 1 - Punishment Orientation Rules are obeyed to avoid punishment. Stage 2 - Instrumental Orientation (or personal gain) Rules are obeyed for personal gain |
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Describe level 2 of moral reasoning; conventional morality. |
Stage 3 - 'Good boy/girl' Orientation Rules are obeyed for approval Stage 4 - Maintenance of the social order Rules are obeyed to maintain social order |
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Describe level 3 of moral reasoning; post conventional morality. |
Stage 5 - Morality of contact and individual rights Rules are obeyed if they are important, democratic rules are challenged if they infringe on the rights of others. Stage 6 - Morality of conscience The individual establishes his or her own rules in acceptance with a personal set of ethical principles (conscience). |
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Describe how offenders are most likely to be classified on the stages of moral reasoning. |
- Most likely to be classified at the pre-conventional level (stages 1 & 2). - The pre-conventional level is characterised by the need to avoid punishment and gain rewards and is associated with a less mature, childlike reasoning. - Thus an adult/adolescent at this level may be more likely to commit a crime if they can get away with it and gain rewards from the money etc. |
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What research is there to suggest that offenders act at the first level of moral reasoning. |
Chandler (1973) suggested that offenders are often more egocentric and display poorer social perspectives-taking skills than non-offender peers. |
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Describe how non-offenders are most likely to be classified on the stages of moral reasoning. |
Individuals who reason at a higher level tend to sympathise more with the rights of others and exhibit more conventional behaviours such as honesty, generosity and non-violence (classified at conventional level). |
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Define cognitive distortions. |
These are errors or biases in people's information processing system characterised by faulty thinking. Research has linked this to the way that criminals interpret other people's behaviour and justify their own. |
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What two examples of cognitive distortions are there? |
Hostile Attribution Bias Minimalisation |
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Define hostile attribution bias. |
To assume when people are being confrontational when they're not (perception of others). |
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Define minimalisation. |
The attempt to minimise or reduce the seriousness of an offence. |
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Give an example of research to support hostile attribution bias. |
Dodge & Frame (1982) showed children a video clip of an 'ambiguous provocation' (where the intention was neither clearly hostile or accidental). Children who had been identified as aggressive and rejected prior to the study interpreted the situation as more hostile than those classed as non-aggressive and accepted. |
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Give an example of research to support minimalisation. |
Barbaree (1991) found among 26 incarcerated rapists, 54.7% denied they had committed an offence at all and a further 40% minimised the harm they had caused to the victim. Pollock & Hashmall (1991) reported that 35% of a sample of child molesters argued that the crimes they had committed were non-sexual (they were just being 'affectionate') and 36% stated that the victim had consented. |
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Evaluate cognitive explanations of offending behaviour. |
+ Research to support Kohlberg's levels of moral reasoning (Palmer & Hollin 1998) - Fails to account for individual differences (only explains utilitarian crimes; fails to explain rape) + Research to support cognitive distortions (Barbaree, Dodge & Frame) + Real life application (CBT) - Only offers a description rather than an explanation (doesn't explain why) |
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Describe Palmer & Hollin's (1998) study to support cognitive explanations of offending. |
- Compared moral reasoning between 210 female non-offenders, 122 male non-offenders and 126 convicted offenders.
- Used the ‘Socio-Moral Reflection Measure Short-Form’ (SRMSF), which contains 11 moral dilemma-related questions. - The delinquent group showed a less mature moral reasoning which is consistent with Kohlberg’s predictions. |
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Who devised the differential association theory? |
Sociologist, Sutherland (1939) |
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Define differential association theory. |
Proposes that through interaction with others, individuals learn the values, attitudes, techniques and motives for criminal behaviour. Offending behaviour is learnt through a series of interactions that a person has with significant others such as peer groups or family. |
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Explain how a person's socialisation can lead to criminal behaviour according to the differential association theory. |
When a person is socialised into a group they will be exposed to certain values about the law. Some of these values will be pro-criminal and some will be anti-criminal. Sutherland argues that if the number of pro-criminal attitudes outweigh the number of anti-criminal values they will become a criminal. |
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Why is criminal behaviour not exclusive to people who are deprived or uneducated according to the differential association theory? |
If a person from a middle-class background is exposed to behaviours seen as acceptable such as tax or insurance fraud then they will be more likely to commit these crimes than if they have not been exposed to such behaviours (modelling). |
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Why is the differential association theory considered scientific? |
If you have knowledge of the frequency, intensity and duration that a person is exposed to deviant and non-deviant norms and values then it will be possible to mathematically predict the likelihood that a person will commit a crime. |
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Why is it called differential association theory? |
Everyones associations are different (differential association) therefore everyone has different norms and values. |
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Explain how positive reinforcement can be used to explain why someone will commit a crime according to the differential association theory. |
If the benefits of engaging in criminal behaviour outweigh the benefits of not engaging in criminal behaviour then a person will commit a crime. This could be benefits in the form of respect and approval of the people with whom the person associates. |
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How can the differential association theory explain reoffending? |
Whilst people are in prison they learn pro-crime attitudes and specific techniques (which may involve learning certain rationalisations for committing an offence) of offending from others who are more experienced - supporting the idea that prisons may be schools of crime rather than a place for rehabilitation. |
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Describe Farrington et al (2006) research into the differential association theory. |
- Longitudinal study of the development of offending and anti-social behaviour in 411 males who were studied from the ages of 8-50 years old - All lived in a deprived, WC area of London - 41% of the males had been convicted of at least one offence between the ages of 10 and 50 - 7% of the offences (chronic offender) committed half of the recorded offences in the whole study - Key risk factors included family criminality, poverty, poor parenting, low school achievement |
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Evaluate the differential association theory. |
+ Includes all types of crime + Research support (Farrington) - Lacks scientific rigour (cannot measure pro/anti-criminal values) - Lacks individual differences (not everyone exposed to criminal behaviour becomes a criminal) - Environmentally deterministic (ignores people who choose to offend - free will) |
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According to Blackburn (1993), how can the superego lead to criminal behaviour? |
If the superego is somehow deficient or inadequate then criminal behaviour is inevitable because the id is given free 'rein' and not properly controlled. Three potential types of faulty superego can be formed; weak, deviant and overly harsh. |
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Define the weak superego. |
Same-sex parent is absent during the phallic stage Child cannot internalise a full formed superego No opportunity for identification Immoral and criminal behaviour is more likely |
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Define the deviant superego. |
If the superego that the child internalises has immoral or deviant values this would lead to offending behaviour. |
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Define the overly-harsh superego. |
Individual is crippled with guilt and anxiety This may drive the individual to perform criminal acts in order to satisfy the superego's over whelming need for punishment. |
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Explain how you can apply Bowlby's theory of maternal deprivation to offending behaviour. |
Failure to establish such a bond during the first few years of life means that the child will experience a number of damaging and emotional consequences such as the development of affectionless psychopathy. Maternally deprived individuals are likely to engage in acts of delinquency and cannot develop close relationships with others, as they lack the necessary early experience to do so. |
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Define affectionless psychopathy. |
Characterised by a lack of guilt, empathy and feelings for others. |
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Evaluate the psychodynamic approach to explaining offending behaviour. |
- Methodological issues with Bowlby's 44 thieves research (failed to define the difference between deprivation and privation, biased sample, retrospective data, social desirability) - Cannot establish causation - Not just mothers who are important for attachment (Schnaffer & Emerson) - Contradictory research (criminals don't want to be punished - overly harsh) - Gender bias (alpha - ignores girls). |
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Define behaviour modification as a way of dealing with offending behaviour. |
- Based on principles of operant conditioning - Believed that if all behaviour is learnt then it you should be able to unlearn it - Aim is to replace undesirable behaviours with more desirable ones through the selective use of positive/negative reinforcement Obedient behaviours are rewards and disobedient behaviours are punished |
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Give an example of behaviour modification. |
Token economy |
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Define token economy. |
- Based on operant conditioning - It involves reinforcing desirable behaviours with a token which can then be exchanged for some kind of reward - Emphasis on non-compliance or disobedience resulting in the withholding of tokens and associated rewards (this acts as a form of punishment) - Tokens act as secondary reinforcers because they derive their values from their association with a reward/privilege |
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Give an example of desirable behaviours used in token economy. |
Avoiding conflict Following prison rules Keeping your cell orderly |
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Give an example of desirable reward used in token economy. |
Phone call to a loved one Time in the gym Extra cigarettes or food. |
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Explain how token economy changes behaviour. |
- Identifying the desirable behaviour and dividing it into smaller parts and establishing a baseline measure - All individuals who interact with the offender must follow the same regime of selective reinforcement - Each time the offender displays a desirable behaviour they are reinforced with a token; the tokens are then exchanged for rewards - But the programme needs to be monitored by prison officials otherwise it may not be as effective |
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Evaluate behaviour modification. |
- Little rehabilitative value (doesn't work in the real world) + Cheap and easy to implement (compared to anger management) - Requires consistency from all staff (Bassett & Blanchard 1977) - Offenders are passive recipients in the process (everyone has to take part) - Fails to consider individual differences (different motivations for different people - Field et al 2004) |
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Describe Bassett & Blanchard's research into behaviour modification. |
- Found any benefits were lost after staff applied the techniques inconsistently due to factors such as lack of appropriate training or high staff turnover. |
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Describe Field et al. (2004) research into behaviour modification. |
- Found that after youths who failed to work effectively with the original token economy programme were placed into a specialist programme where the rewards were more immediate and more frequent, the results were more positive. |
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Describe the procedure of Hobbs and Holt's (1976) research into behaviour modification. |
-125 delinquent males committed to the Alabama Boys industrial school for a range of offences - All aged between 12-15, 2/3 were black and the rest were white - 4 cottages using token economy (1 acted as the control) - Behaviour was recorded on a chart by 17 trained members of staff - Data was collected over 14 months and all the boys knew about the programme. |
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Describe the findings of Hobbs and Holt's (1976) research into behaviour modification. |
- Increase in target behaviours by the boys in the three cottages. - No noticeable improvement in the control cottage. |
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What do cognitive psychologists argue about anger as a cause of offending? |
Cognitive factors trigger the emotional arousal that precedes aggression. Anger is sometimes quick to present itself especially in threatening situations suggesting an underlying cognitive distortion. |
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What do behaviourist psychologists argue about anger as a cause of offending? |
Behaviourists argue that becoming angry is a reinforced behaviour by the individual's feeling of control in that situation. |
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Who devised anger management as a way of dealing with offending behaviour? |
Novaco (1975) |
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Define anger management as a way of dealing with offending behaviour. |
The individual is taught how to recognise when they are losing control and then encouraged to develop techniques which bring about conflict-resolution without the need for violence. |
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What does Calm People Should Avoid Angry People stand for? |
CP - cognitive preparation SA - skill acquisition AP - application practise |
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Define the cognitive preparation stage of anger management. |
- Offenders reflect on past experiences and consider the typical pattern of anger - Identifies those situations which act as a trigger to anger - If the offender interprets the situation irrationally then the therapist makes this clear - Therapist redefines the situation as non-threatening; breaking an automatic response from the offender |
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Define the skills acquisition stage of anger management. |
-Offenders introduced to a range of techniques and skills to help them deal with anger - Cognitive techniques; positive self-talk - Behavioural techniques; assertiveness training in how to communicate more effectively - Physiological methods of relaxation and relaxation and/or meditation - Offender should be in charge of their emotions not controlled by them |
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Define the application practise stage of anger management. |
- Offenders are given the opportunity to practise their skills within a carefully monitored environment - Requires commitment from the offender - they must see the senario as real - Therapist must also be brave as they have to 'wind the offender up' in order to assess their progress - Successful negotiation of the role play would be met with positive reinforcement from the therapist |
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Describe Keen et al. (2000) research into anger management. |
- Studied the progress made with young offenders aged between 17 and 21 who took part in a nationally recognised anger management programme - Course comprises 8 2-hour sessions, the first 7 over a 3 week period and the last session a month later - Initial issues with offenders not taking it seriously (forgetting their diary etc) - Offenders reported increased awareness of their anger management difficulties and an increased capacity to exercise self-control |
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Evaluate anger management. |
+ Addresses cause of the problem (decreases recidivism rates - effective) - Lack of research support (Blackburn 1993 - lack of mundane realism/ecological validity - less effective) - Expensive and time consuming (specialist staff needed - less appropriate) - Cannot establish cause and effect (organised offenders aren't angry but still cause harm - less appropriate) |
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Describe Blackburn's (1993) research into anger management. |
- Found that anger management may have little noticeable effect on the conduct of the offender in the short term and very little evidence to suggest it reduces recidivism in the long term. |
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Describe the aims of custodial sentencing. |
1. Incapacitation (to protect the public) 2. Deference (general and individual) 3. Retribution (to atone for wrong doing) 4. Rehabilitation 5. Punishment 6. Prevent recidivism (reoffending) |
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Define incapacitation with reference to custodial sentencing. |
Necessary in the case of violent offenders or psychopaths who may not be capable of controlling their behaviour. |
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Define deterence with reference to custodial sentencing. |
To discourage the general population; if the punishment was seen as less serious then more people may be willing to break the law (social learning approach - learning indirectly from the consequences of others' behaviour). |
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Define retribution with reference to custodial sentencing. |
Victim and their family wish to feel a sense of justice being done. The offender should be seen to pay in some kind of way (just paying a fine is insufficient). |
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Define rehabilitation with reference to custodial sentencing. |
The only way to prevent criminal behaviour is through some form of education or therapy especially in the case of offenders with mental health issues. Having a person in prison may offer the best opportunities for the therapy as they have fewer distractions and there may be incentives to participate. |
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What are the psychological effects of custodial sentencing? |
1. Depression, self harm, suicide 2. Institutionalisation 3. Prisonisation 4. Overcrowding, lack of privacy 5. Effect on family 6. De-individualisation |
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Define de-individualisation with reference to custodial sentencing. |
Loss of individual identity which is associated with increased aggression and treating people in inhuman ways - link to Zimbardo |
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Explain how depression can influence an offender with reference to custodial sentencing. |
Offenders entering prison may initially feel quite anxious about the whole new and frightening environment, hopeless about their future and lacking in control, Ambramson et al (1989) suggested depression is caused by both helplessness and hopelessness. |
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Explain how self-harm can influence an offender with reference to custodial sentencing. |
The Howard League for prison reform reported 10,000 incidents of slef-harm in 2008 - though self-harm may also be a part of conformity, Newton (1980) reported that it was a way of becoming part of the culture. |
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Explain how suicide can influence an offender with reference to custodial sentencing. |
The greatest risk groups for suicide is single young males in the first 24 hours of imprisonment. |
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Explain how inprisonment may have an effect on the offenders family with reference to custodial sentencing. |
Children with a mother/family in prison are deeply affected financially and psychologically and the reverse is also true. Parents in prison may feel guilt and separation anxiety (Glover 2009). |
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What are the recidivism rates for the UK? |
The prison reform trust (2014) reports that 46% of adults are reconvicted within one year of release. Over 67% of under 18 year olds are reconvicted within a year. |
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What are the costs of the economy due to recidivism rates? |
£9.5 billion per year, therefore research on custodial sentencing and on recidivism is very important for the economy of the country. |
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Which country has the highest rates of recidivism in the world? |
USA and UK |
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Which country has the lowest reoffending rates in Europe? |
Norway; less than half of those in the UK |
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Why does Norway have a lower recidivism rate than the UK? |
Focus on rehabilitation and skill development in comparison to the UK. |
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Evaluate custodial sentencing. |
+ Opportunties for training (anger management etc - effectiveness) - Recidivism rates are high - effectiveness - Lack of research support (punishment is not immediate and offenders may feel they are being punished for being caught not for committing the crime - effectiveness) - Ethical issues - risk of psychological harm, Zimbardo - appropriateness - Schools of crime (differential association theory - appropriateness) - Are alternatives better? |
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Define restorative justice. |
A system for dealing with criminal behaviour which focuses on the rehabilitation of offenders through reconciliation with victims. This enables the offender to see the impact of their crime and serves to empower victims by giving them a voice. |
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Who oversees the process of restorative justice? |
The restorative justice council; they are responsible for establishing the standard for the use of restorative justice and to support victims and professionals in the system. |
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Describe the process of restorative justice. |
- Process of managed collaboration between offender and victim - A supervised meeting between the two parties is organised and a trained mediator must attend - Victim is then given the opportunity to confront the offender and explain how the incident affected them - Offender is also able to see the consequences of their action including the emotional distress that has been caused |
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What is the focus of restorative justice? |
There is more of an emphasis on acceptance of responsibility and positive change for people who harm others and less emphasis on punishment. |
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How can the process be changed to suit the needs of the individuals involved? |
- May voluntarily choose to meet face-to-face in a non-courtroom setting - Other relevant community members may also have a role in the process - Offender may make some financial restitution to the victim which may reflect the damage done - Offender repairing damaged property themselves |
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Why is restorative justice a good option for younger offenders? |
- Flexible and can function as an alternative to prison - As an ‘add-on’ to community service - As an incentive which may lead to the reduction of an existing sentence. |
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Evaluate restorative justice. |
+ Flexible to suit all types of offenders - effectiveness - Not suitable for all types of crime (murder, rape etc - feminists; imbalance of power) - Relies on the offender showing remorse - may be doing it for the other rewards - Cheaper than custodial sentencing (Shapland et al 2007) - Lack of public support (soft option) - appropriateness |
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Describe Shapland et al. (2007) research on restorative justice. |
A 7-year government funded research project found that for every £1 spent on restorative justice would save the criminal justice system £8 through reduced reoffending. |
