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346 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
Endurance training requires...
strength, balance, stability and mobility
What would happen if you were to burn glucose?
it would burst into flames once activation energy was releasing all the stored energy as heat leaving you with CO2 and H20
the reactions of the body is controlled during....
conversion from carbohydrates, fat and protein to ATP controlled by enzymes which controls the speed of the reactions
The maximal rate of energy expenditure is limited by...
the activity of ATPase hydrolysing enzymes
Vmax of ATP depletion is higher (3x) in...
fast twitch fibres than in slow twitch fibres
How much ATP can be broken down per second via fast twitch fibres?
21.5 mmol ATP/kg/s
How much ATP can be broken down per second via slow twitch fibres?
6.5 mmol ATP/kg/s
How do you increase power during the start of a sprint?
Increase ATP and mATPase (result of strength training)
What are the three basic energy systems?
- ATP-PCr system (phosphagen system)

- Glycolytic system


- Oxidative system
ATP-PCr (Phospho-creatine) System
can prevent energy depletion by quickly reforming ATP from ADP & Pi through an anaerobic process



simplest system with no fat, glucose or protein
How many moles of ATP are produced per 1 mole of phospho-creatine (PCr)?
1 mole of ATP
The energy from the breakdown of PCr is not used for....
cellular work but solely for regenerating ATP
Which type of fibre (FT v.s ST) contains more PCr?
FT fibres (15-20% more)
How long can PCr contribute to ATP generation?
about 20s under certain circumstances such as high intensity exercise and when you first start moving
When does power output begin to decrease in regards to the PCr system?
after about 10s which indicates PCr depletion
How do you overcome a decrease in power output in regards to the PCr system?
creatine loading




What is creatine loading?
creatine supplementation mostly sold as Creatine Monohydrate which increase short-term power performance

Meat, fish and poultry contain about 4-5 g which is enough to function normally. Usually 1g/day comes from Amino Acids causing vegetarians to be at a disadvantage because it is not produced in plants
What are the side effects of creatine loading?
GI trouble (diarrhoea)



Cramping of muscles possibly caused by water storage

Studies have indicated increased performance in these activities due to creatine loading
Running - improved 300/1000m runs



Cycling - improved maintenance of cycle pedalling cadence




Bench Press - improved 1RM, number of reps @ 70% RM
What is the loading phase in regards to creatine loading?
20-30g of creatine daily for 5-7 days afterwards a daily dose of 2-5g as maintenance
What is creatine best taken with?
high glycemic drinks containing simple sugars (ex. chocolate milk) which seems to help move the creatine into cells

NO CAFFEINE because it prevents creatine action completely
Phospho-creatine has to be....
regenerated through the utilization of ATP from a reversed reaction



Pi + Creatine ---> PCr
What can cellular oxidation produce?
the greatest number of ATP if time is not a factor
Where does the HIGHEST RATE of ATP production occur?
from the ATP-PCr system then the gylcolysis-lactate system then the cellular respiration (aerobic) system
The ATP-PCr and glycolysis systems are limited in...
capacity (how many ATP the system can produce)
The aerobic system only works inside the...
mitochondria which is limited in a cell



the mitochondria NEED NADH and FADH2




inherited from mother
What happens during glycolysis and the citric acid cycle in regards to electron transport?
NAD+ and FAD accept electrons from hydrogen to for NADH and FADH2



cytochromes pass pairs of electrons to each other which eventually leaves the electrons reduced to O2 and H2O
What are cytochromes?
iron protein carriers on the inner membrane of the mitochondria
How many protons of NADH and FADH2 are used in glycolysis and the citric acid cycle?
4 and 6 respectively
What occurs during oxidative phosphorylation?
along the ETC the electron is stripped from the hydrogen, which continues along the chain



the resulting H+ is pumped outside the matrix into intermembrane space
For each NADH in oxidative phosphorylation, how many pairs of protons are pumped out?
3 pairs (6 protons)
For each FADH2 in oxidative phosphorylation, how many pairs of protons are pumped out?
2 pairs (4 protons)
What does the pumping out of NADH and FADH2 cause?
a decrease in pH (acidic) and a positive charge outside the matrix resulting in the H+ pairs wanting to move into the matrix through special portals where O2 is located, forming H2O
What does the formation of H2O in oxidative phosphorylation result in?
energy release which causes the energization of phosphate (Pi) which in turn unites with ADP forming ATP
How many ATPs can NADH and FADH produce respectively?
3 ATPs and 2 ATPs
What are the original sources of energy?
Carbohydrates, fat and protein retrieved from food that needs to be broken down into NADH and FADH2 through glycolysis or the citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle)
What is glycolysis?
the breakdown of glucose which may be anaerobic or aerobic
What is glycogenesis?
the process by which glycogen is synthesized from glucose to be stored in the liver
What is glycogenolysis?
the process by which glycogen is broken into glucose-1-phosphate to be used by the muscles
What occurs after the conversion to fructose-6-phosphate in glycolysis?
phosphofructokinase controls the rate of reaction to fructose 1,6-diphosphate
What is the name of the key enzyme in glycolysis?
phosphofructokinase (PFK)
What limits the rate of glycolysis?
activity level
What type of muscle fibre contains more phosphofructokinase? What does this indicate?
FT fibres



it has something to do with force production because of the FT fibres having better anaerobic ability to create ATP
How many ATPs are produced directly from 1 glucose molecule?
4 ATP



2 ATP ro go into glucose to prime the system meaning we are only left with 2 ATP afterwards
There is a high concentration of enzymes that are involved with glycolysis located in the.....
cells that large quantities of ATP can be produced fairly rapidly forming 2 NADH
NADH can not pass into...
mitochondrion but through a shuttle system results in an FADH2 passing to the ETC resulting in the formation of 4 ATP (can only occur if O2 is present)
What is the last step in glycolysis?
the production of pyruvate (pyruvic acid)
What happens if sufficient O2 is available during the last step of glycolysis?
pyruvate can enter the citric acid cycle and be used up, removing NADH through a process called aerobic glycolysis
What happens if sufficient O2 is NOT available during the last step of glycolysis?
NADH builds up and can't remove H+ from the reaction @ step 6 of the cycle which causes a build up of pyruvate as well causing glycolysis to slow
What produces lactic acid or lactate?
NADH and pyruvate combining through the action of lactate dehydrogenase
What does the production of lactic acid cause?
frees up NAD+ and reduces concentrations of pyruvate which allows glycolysis to continue
What is lactate doing continuously?
being formed in red blood cells in the mitochondria and muscle cells that are highly glycolytic (FT fibres)
What happens to lactic acid when neighbouring cells are not being contracted?
it is used as a source of energy and converted back into pyruvate for the citric acid cycle (LACTATE SHUFFLE)
When is there no lactate acid accumulation?
if the removal rate by other muscles is equal to or greater than the production of lactic acid
What can lactate acid also be used for?
to regenerate glucose
Where does the Cori cycle occur?
in the liver when lactate is stripped of it's H+ by the NAD+ to form pyruvate which can be converted into glucose
What is the half time of lactate?
20 minutes
What happens to the pyruvate formed through glycolysis in regards to the citric acid cycle?
it passes into the moitochondrion and attatches to coenzyme A to form acetyl-CoA, losing a carbon to form CO2 and a H+ to form another NADH
Is the citric acid reversible?
NO
What does the citric acid cycle begin with?
acetyl-CoA joining with oxaloaxetate to form citrate (6 carbons)
What does completing the citric acid cycle produce?
6 NADH



2 FADH2




2 ATP




4 CO2


6 H20
What is the total number of ATPs produced by the citric acid cycle after NADH and FADH2 pass into the ETC?
24 ATP
What are the sources of Acetyl-CoA?
glucose through glycolysis



amino acids through protein breakdown




fatty acids through beta oxidation
What will Acetyl-CoA attatch to in order to form citric acid?
oxaloacetate, the result of the previous turn of the Krebs Cycle
What is the first step to oxidation of carbohydrates?
pyruvic acid from glycolysis is converted to acetyl coenzyme A (Acetyl-CoA)
What is the second step to oxidation of carbohydrates?
acetyl-CoA enters the Krebs cycle and forms 2 ATP, carbon dioxide and hydrogen
What is the third step to oxidation of carbohydrates?
hydrogen in the cell combines with two coenzymes that carry it to the ETC
What is the fourth step to oxidation of carbohydrates?
the ETC recombines hydrogen atoms to produce ATP and water
What is the final step to oxidation of carbohydrates?
one molecule of glycogen can generate up to 39 molecules of ATP
What is lypolysis?
the breakdown of triglycerides into glycerol and free fatty acids (FFAs)
Free fatty acids travel via the...
blood to the muscle fibres and are broken down by enzymes in the mitochondria into acetic acid which is converted into acetyl-CoA
Fat oxidation requires more...
oxygen and generates more energy that carbohydrate oxidation
What happens once hormone sensitive lipase releases free fatty acids?
they bind with albumin in the blood to be transported, where they are then moved to the muscle cell membrane and transported inside
What happens once the the adipocyte is inside the muscle cell membrane?
they can become triglycerides again or be broken down by carnitine acyltransferase into acyl carnitine and cross into the mitochondria
How can glycolysis use glycerol for energy?
use it as 3-phosphoglyceraldhyde which releases hydrogen atoms which can go to NAD+ eventually becoming pyruvate and can enter the citric acid cycle
How many ATPs can glycerol provide?
19 ATPs
What becomes acetyl-CoA during beta oxidization?
the fatty acid molecule
What happens once the fatty acid molecule becomes acetyl-CoA during beta oxidation?
it enters he citric acid cycle the samae as acetyl-Co from glucose
What does fatty acid breakdown require?
oxygen
How many fatty acids are present for a triglyceride to dorm?
3 fatty acids
How many ATPs can a triglyceride provide?
3 x 147 = 441 ATP
How can energy be taken from protein?
protein catabolism
How do glucogenic amino acids provide energy during protein catabolism?
by providing materials for glucose synthesis
How do ketogenic amino acids provide energy during protein catabolism?
by providing acetyl-CoA or acetoacetate which can become fat or energy through the citric acid cycle
What does excessive protein breakdown produce?
large amounts of amines which contain nitrogen (toxic to blood) which the body removes as fast as possible through urine with lots of water
How much protein should a 100kg person have per day?
20kg/day
When does the glucose to fat - pentose phosphate pathway occur?
when there is an excessive glucose intake causing citrate produced to move into cytosol for fatty acid synthesis
When does protein convert into fat?
when amino acids in the liver are converted into pyruvate which then enters the citric acid cycle as citrate which moves into cytosol for fatty acid synthesis
What is needed in order for fat catabolism to occur?
carbohydrates
What is needed for fatty acid catabolism to continue?
a sufficient amount of oxalacetate
What maintains the levels of oxalacetate during fatty acid catabolism?
pyruvate from glucose
Low pyruvate = ....
low oxaloacetate
The rate of oxalacetate is limited to what during maximal aerobic exercise?
about 1/2 of the needs



therefore carbohydrates are important
At any given time what determines which energy system will be used?
how hard you are working, the intensity you are working at and the duration of the work you are doing
What is the Fick equation?
VO2 = cardiac output x a -v O2 difference
Wht is cardiac output?
the amount of blood that the heart pumps out per unit time (minute)
What is cardiac output made up of?
stroke volume (amount of blood in L) and heart rate (bpm)
What is a-v O2 difference?
the arteriovenous difference



aka. the amount of oxygen used by a muscle cell in the ETC (mL O2/100mL blood or % difference)
What is pulmonary (lung) function?
to transfer oxygen from air into blood and remove carbon dioxide from blood into the air
What is pulmonary ventilation?
the process of moving air into the lungs causing the air to be warmed (37 C) and moistened (100% humidity)
What is air filtered by when it passes into the lungs?
hairs called cilia on the walls of the lungs
What type of air pressure is needed to move air into the lungs?
negative air pressure
What type of air pressure is needed to move air out of the lungs?
positive air pressure
What type of pressure is in the veins?
low pressure
What is the veins job?
to push blood back to the heart
What type of blood is in the veins?
oxygenated blood
What type of pressure is in the arteries?
high pressure
What is the arteries job?
the lead blood away from the heart
What type of blood is in the arteries?
de-oxygenated blood
How much air can the lungs hold?
between 4 to 6L of air
What is the surface area of the lungs?
about the size of 1/2 of a tennis course
What takes place in the alveoli?
gas exchange
What do the walls of alveoli provide?
barriers for oxygen
What are alveoli surrounded densely by?
blood vessels
How many alveoli are in the lungs?
300 million, very small sacs
Where are the alveoli's located?
beside the capillaries, if there an no capillaries, no gas exchange will take place
How thick are the walls of the alveoli?
0.3 micrometers
What does the alveoli contain? What do they do?
the pores of Kohn which release surfactant to allow the lungs to open and close as well as allow air to travel from one cell to the next
How much more oxygen in in hemoglobin compared to fluid?
65 to 70 times more
How much blood does a hemoglobin capture?
about 197 ml O2/L of blood
What is the half life of hemoglobin?
45 days
How much blood is in the cardiovascular system?
total blood volume of 5L
How much blood can the cardiovascular system ACTUALLY hold?
20 L of blood
Where does the cardiovascular system send blood?
where it is needed first and then where blood pressure needs to be maintained


how fast does the distribution of blood need to be?
very rapidly because sometimes the decisions conflict with each other, think of standing up quickly
Where does the heart push blood?
the aorta, which distends to store a certain amount of blood like a balloon
What is associated with the flow away from the aorta?
a pulse
What is blood pressure dependent on?
how much blood the heart pumps out and how well it can flow away
What does high blood pressure indicate?
poor health
What acts on the arterioles to cause opening and closing?
the action of hormones, nerves and local metabolites
What does the onset of exercise cause in the cardiovascular system
the opening of arterioles in muscles and the closing in kidneys and intestine



shift is significant even during low intensity excercise
What is the reduced flow of blood during exercise due to?
the Sympathetic nervous system's input to those areas as well as local chemicals
What is the resting rate of blood flow to the kidneys?
1.1 L/min
What is the rate of blood flow to the kidneys during exercise?
.25 L/min
What is the decrease of blood flow in the kidneys from resting rate to during exercise when referring to cardiac output?
20% to 1%
Where do similar changes to blood flow in the kidneys occur in the body?
in the pancreas, liver and GI tract
What happens to blood flow during muscle activation? Why?
it increases because capillaries need to open and there is a small change in the velocity of blood cells as well as an increased area for oxygen to pass from the blood to the muscle
What is blood flow controlled by during muscle activation?
local factors such as, but not limited to: oxygen, blood flow, CO2 acidity, adenosine (A of ATP), Mg, K, nitric oxide
What do auto-regulatory mechanisms allow for in an active muscle?
for control locally allowing it to supply needs most accurately as well as maintain adequate flood flow een if nerves have been removed
When is adenosine (A from ATP) highest?
when ATP is broken down through high intensity exercise
What is the cardiac output at rest for an untrained person?
assume that one needs about 5L output



the heart rate is about 70bpm so stroke volume would be 0.071 L/min in males and 0.05 L to 0.06 L in females
What is the cardiac output at rest for a trained person?
assume that one needs about 5L output



the heart rate is 50 bpm so the stroke volume would be 0.1 L/min
Does maximum heart rate increase with training?
no, it decreases
What is the cardiac output during exercise for an untrained person?
assume a heart rate of 195 bpm



the cardiac output would be 20 to 22 L/min with a stroke volume of 0.103 to 0.113 L/min
What is the cardiac output during exercise for a trained person?
assume a heart rate of 195 bpm



the cardiac output would be 35 to 40 L/min because of the increase in stroke volume which would be anywhere from 0.180 L/min to 0.210 L/min
Why is stroke volume so big in trained individuals?
bigger left ventricle causing it to depend on how much can be pumped in and out of it
When is the only time that a ventricle can fill?
diastole

IN = end-diastolic volume (EDV) being the preload
What does a long diastole indicate?
more time to fill the ventricle
What does more of a push of blood into the ventricle cause?
an increased end-diastole volume (EDV)
What does the Frank Starling Law state?
Why?
more blood into the heart causes a more forceful contraction of the ventricle because of the length-tension relationship in the muscle
What happens to venous return during exercise?
it increases due to muscle pump which increases the blood in the ventricle and an increase of blood pushed out of the heart
When is the highest stroke volume achieved?
when the body is in a supine (horizontal) position
Is your heart rate high or low during swimming?
low
What does the heart have to push against?
afterload
Does the heart take more blood in or push more blood out?
more blood out
How much blood is left in the heart after emptying?
50 to 70 mL of blood
If the stroke volume was 70 mL then what would the total EDV be?
140 mL, meaning 50% of the blood was ejected
During exercise, the stroke volume is 100 mL, what would the total EDV be?
170 mL, meaning 59% of the blood was ejected
What is the cardiac output distribution of muscle at rest?
1000 mL out of 5000 mL (20%)
What is the cardiac output distribution of the liver at rest?
1350 mL out of 5000 mL (27%)
What is the cardiac output distribution of the kidneys at rest?
1100 mL out of 5000 mL (22%)
What is the cardiac output distribution of the brain at rest?
700 mL out of 5000 mL (14%)
What is the cardiac output distribution of skin at rest?
300 mL of 5000 mL (6%)
What is the cardiac output distribution of the heart at rest?
200 mL of 5000 mL (4%)
What is the cardiac output distribution of "other" at rest?
350 mL of 5000 mL (7%)
What is the cardiac output distribution of muscle during exercise?
21000 mL out of 25000 mL (84%)
What is the cardiac output distribution of the liver during exercise?
500 mL out of 25000 mL (2%)
What is the cardiac output distribution of the kidneys during exercise?
250 mL out of 25000 mL (1%)
What is the cardiac output distribution of the brain during exercise?
900 mL out of 25000 mL (4%)
What is the cardiac output distribution of skin during exercise?
600 mL out of 25000 mL (2%)
What is the cardiac output distribution of the heart during exercise?
1000 mL out of 25000 mL (4%)
What is the cardiac output distribution of "other" during exercise?
780 mL out of 25000 mL (3%)
What are the two factors that influence the training bradycardia?
decreased sympathetic drive and increased vagal tone
What happens when a myocardial contracility occurs?
a greater fraction of blood is pushed out of the heart per beat
What is left ventricle compliance?
when the left ventricle can hold more blood due to stretching
what changes in a-vO2 difference?
blood redistribution, an increase in skeletal muscle micro-circulation and an increase in mitochondria
What happens during blood re-distribution
blood is moved from areas where it is not used to somewhere it is needed
What happens when there is an increase in skeletal muscle micro-circulation?
there is a better direct delivery of O2 to the muscle as well as those with high a-vO2 difference shows many more capillaries and muscles
What happens when there is an increase in mitochondria?
the are more enzymes in the citric acid cycle and the ETC
Where is oxygen consumption during exercise measured and what is it assumed to be equal to?
at the mouth



O2 consumption in lungs, which is not the same as O2 consumption at the muscle cell
How does oxygen consumption reflect the usage of oxygen at the muscles?
each molecule of glucose metabolized requires 6 oxygen molecules
How many ATPs does glucose produce through oxygen consumption?
37 to 39 ATPs when fully metabolized
How many oxygen molecules can produce 37 - 39 ATP during oxygen consumption
6
How can the number of ATP being produced during oxygen consumption be measured?
by finding the difference between oxygen going in and coming out
How much oxygen is breathed in during oxygen consumption?
20.93%
How much oxygen is breathed out during oxygen consumption
17%, meaning that some of the oxygen is being used up
How is oxygen consumption measured?
per minute
what does VO2 mean?
Volume of Oxygen
What is the measurement of VO2
absolute measure (L/min) or relative to body weight (mL/min/kg)
What is the normal resting level of VO2?
3-5 mL/min/kg or 0.7 L/min
What is the maximum level of VO2 recorded?
90 mL/min/kg in cross country skiers or 7.5 L/min in rowers
What happens to VO2 levels during exercise?
it rises exponentially at the beginning then plateaus between 3 and 4 minutes
What does it mean when VO2 forms a steady state?
sufficient ATP is supplied to the working muscles by the aerobic systems and can be maintained indefinitely unless over heated
What is the fat component of body composition?
percent body fat
What is the non-fat component of body composition?
lean body mass and bone mass
What did people rely on to determine recommended body weight?
height/weight charts which failed to identify critical fat values associated with high risk of disease
What is the body composition of muscle in male v.s females?
43% and 36% respectively
What is the body composition of essential fat in male v.s females?
3% and 12% respectively
What is the body composition of storage fat in male v.s females?
14% and 15% respectively
What is the body composition of bone in male v.s females?
15% and 12% respectively
What is the body composition of other tissues in male v.s females?
25% for each gender
What are essential fats needed for?
normal physiologic function
Where are essential fats found?
within tissues such as muscles, nerve cells, bone marrow, intestines, heart liver and lungs
Where is storage fat found?
in adipose, mostly subcutaneous (just below the skin)
Why do we have storage fat?
in case of starvation
What is the role of storage fat?
insulator to retain heat, an energy substrate for metabolism and padding against trauma
Where is storage fat stored the most in men?
around the waist
Where is storage fat stored the most in women?
hips and thighs
What is obesity?
the point at which excess body fat can lead to serious health problems



a health hazard of worldwide proportions
Why is there a significant increase in obesity in Canadian incidences?
inactivity and poor dietary habits
What weight is classified as overweight?
5 to 10 kg over the recommended weight
What are outcomes of obesity?
reduced life expectancy and implications for the quality of life
What do all processes in the body result in?
heat production
What did early scientists use the idea of direct calorimetry for?
a way to measure the energy expenditure of the body at rest and during exercise
How many kcals are released when combusted with a mix of carbohydrates, fat and protein during indirect calorimetry?
4.82 kcal
What is the calorific value for oxygen during indirect calorimetry?
varies only 2 to 4%

usually rounded to 5 kcal/L O2
What can you find if you measure oxygen usage?
caloric value
When does metabolism decrease?
during sleep
What is the energy balancing equation?
as long as calorie input = output, weight will remain constant
What are determining factors of weight loss/gain?
genetic, life-style and individual differences
What does EER stand for?
estimated energy requirment
What does TEF stand for?
thermic effect of food
What does BMR stand for?
basal metabolic rate
What determines a persons estimated energy requirement?
BMR, TEF and physical activity
How do you lose weight?
= energy intake - energy expenditure
How much energy does 1g of carbohydrates produce?
4 kcal
How much energy does 1g of protein produce?
4 kcal
How much energy does 1g of fat produce?
9 kcal
What is the recommended intake of calories according to the energy balance?
enough to keep you in energy balance
What is the recommended % of calorie intake for a 2000kcal diet?
45 - 65%
What is the recommended % of protein intake for a 2000kcal diet?
17 - 35% (or 1 to 1.7g/kg body weight)
What is the recommended % of intake for a 2000kcal diet?
20 - 35%
How many kcals does 1 kg of fat contain?
9000 kcal
What is the equation used to lose weight?
energy intake < energy output
What is the set-point theory?
a set-point for controlling appetite and fat stored
What does WRM stand for?
What is an example of a WRM?
weight regulating mechanism



the set-point theory
What part of the brain does the set-point theory take place in?
hypothalamus
What is the role of the set-point theory?
works like a thermostat by regulating the amount of adipose stored in fat cells and body weight
Do individual set-points vary?
yes
What do set points maintain?
body fat precentages
What happens with extreme calorie reduction?
the hypothalamus may initiate metabolic adjustments and the basal metabolic rate may be reduced
Will a person lose a lot of weight with extreme calorie reduction?
in the beginning, then weight will plateau and adapt to it's limit
What factors lower set-point?
exercise, a diet high in complex carbohydrates, nicotine and amphetamines
What does research show leads to greater weight loss?
exercise and diet
What types of exercises work best to lose weight?
aerobic and strength training
What type of exercise best offsets the set-point?
aerobic activity
What is crucial to maintaining lean body mass?
strength training
What is spot reducing?
a weight loss myth



when fat comes off globally




an example of this is that sit-ups will reduce fat in the midsection
What is cellulite?
enlarged fat cells under the skin which is not subject to spot reduction
Why do rubberized sweat suits and steam baths not work?
because it only causes water loss and will be replaced
What is endurance training?
the ability to maintain a certain amount of force output
What is VO2 max?
measure of ability of the body to utilize oxygen



also known as oxygen consumption
what does a higher VO2 mean?
a higher ATP production
A person with a higher VO2 max has ....
a better ability to utilize endurance
If someone were to workout for 2 hours a day for 10 to 12 days at 59% of their VO2 max what would happen?
a very small change in VO2 max and a lower heart rate
What is important for an increase in Vo2 max?
progressive overload
What was the Kiens (1993) fat utilization after training experiment?
seven healthy male subjects were given one-legged knee-extension exercises where one leg was endurance trained and one was not for eight weeks
What are the training elements?
specificity

progressive overload


rest


individuality


disuse
What are keys for beginners during exercises?
- get used to the activity

-do not load too much on at once


- stay at a certain volume for a period of time, do not attempt to overload too quickly (especially for running)


-include rest days


- include some interval work to train intermediate and fast fibres
What are keys for more advanced individuals during exercises?
- put a greater focus on speed through intervals

- if you are coming off of a no training period, the period of "getting used to" is important


- incorporate race/time trials
What is considered too much training?
-no rest days

- working out more than once a day

- not allowing for adequate recovery

- not regulating the total length of your workout (keep hormones and protein metabolism in mind)
What is the endocrine system composed of?
endocrine glands
What are endocrine glands?
ductless glands that secrete hormones directly into the blood
Where do exocrine glands secrete their products?
into ducts (ex. sweat glands)
What is the endocrinefunctions of the pancreas?

insulin and glucagon
What is the exocrine function of the pancreas?
digestive enzymes
What are the three types of hormones?
steroid-derived, polypeptide or amine hormones (from amino acids) and prostaglandins (biologically active lipids)
What do hormones vary according to?
function and solubility
Why is solubility important in regards to hormones?
tells us where hormones can or cannot travel to
What type of solubility are hormones?
water, blood or lipid soluable
What happens if a hormone is lipid soluble?
it can travel easily into cells through the membrane since the membranes are lipid based
Where can polypeptides dissolve?
in blood but can not easily enter the membranes of fat cells because fat can not move easily in blood
What are the effects of hormones on target cells?
they stimulate DNA to produce new proteins, change the rate of enzyme activity, alter membrane transport and induce secretory activity
Where do target cells retrieve receptors for a specific hormone?
on the membrane (protein based hormones) or in the interior of the cell (lipid based hormones)
Where are receptors found?
in all cells
What do the receptors for thyroxine (from the thyroid) regulate?
cellular metabolism
What happens once a receptor binds with a hormone?
receptors can up-regulate (produce more receptors) or down-regulate (decrease number of receptors)
What is hormone function dependent on?
the hormone concentration in the blood, the number of target cell receptors and the sensitivity of the receptors
What occurs with hormone concentration in the blood?
more hormones, more effect
How do hormones get pushed onto receptors?
by other hormone molecules of the same type
What does a large number of target cell receptors mean?
that receptors can 'soak up' hormones in blood quickly so that the hormone has a quick effect
How fast is a hormones response to stimulus?
rapid
What is the release of a hormone?
pulsatile
What is hormone level dependent on?
the amount of hormones synthesized, the rate of the breakdown or release of the hormone into blood, if there are transport proteins available and plasma volume
How many specific receptors does each cell have?
2,000 to 10,000
What are receptors specific to?
hormones, such that only the correct hormone will "fit" the correct receptor
What are examples of catecholamines?
epinephrine and norepinephrine (sympathetic hormones)
What stimulates catecholamines?
the sympathetic nervous system to prepare you for immediate action (fight-or-flight)
What does the fight or flight system cause?
an increase rate and force of heart contraction, blood pressure and respiration
What metabolic functions do catecholamines increase?
metabolic rate, glycogenolysis and release of glucose and free fatty acids in the blood
What do catecholamines allow for?
more blood to go to the skeletal muscles through vasodilation and vasoconstriction of specific vessels
What is the primary function of epinephrine during exercise?
to stimulate metabolism by increasing glycongenisis in the liver and lipolysis in the fat and active muscle tissue
Where does epinephrine come from?
nerves and adrenals
What is epinephrine best called?
the sympathoadernal response
The relative level of exercise is more important than....
the absolute level



(i.e percent of highest sustainable workload)
What does a higher level of relative exercise mean?
more catecholamines
During an extend period of exercise, what happens to the levels of epinephrine and nor-epinephrine?
they rise
What happens to epinephrine levels following exercise?
return to baseline rapidly
What happens to nor-epinephrine following exercise?
levels stay elevated for sometime afterwards
What are the two types of cells in the pancreas?
Acini and Islets of Langerhans
What are examples of islets?
alpha-cells (glucagon) and beta-cells (insulin)
What is an example of acini?
exocrine cells (digestive enzymes)
What is the role of insulin in the body?
to regulate glucose entry into all cells except the brain
How does insulin work?
by facilitating diffusion where glucose combines with carrier proteins on the cellular surface
What happens without insulin?
only very small amounts of glucose are able to enter the cell
What happens to insulin levels after a mean?
levels will increase in response to increased blood glucose levels which will cause the blood glucose levels will decrease
What else does insulin effect other then blood glucose levels?
fat synthesis to encourage glucose uptake by fat cells
How does insulin have an effect on protein synthesis?
an increase in amino acid transport through the cell membrane, an increase in cellular levels of RNA and an increase in protein formation by ribosomes
What is a decrease in insulin release during exercise a result of?
increased epinephrine and nor-epinephrine levels
When do insulin receptors availability become more sensitive? Why?
during exercise because less insulin is required
What do trained athletes show during exercise?
a smaller decrease in insulin levels and a smaller increase in catecholamines
What does the body rely on during exercise?
free fatty acids as a source of energy so that plasma glucose levels do not decrease as substantially
When does glucagon increase? Why?
during exercise to keep plasma glucose levels up
What is blood glucose maintained by?
the liver
When will blood glucose levels be increased?
with increased exercise
Why would blood glucose levels be mis-matched?
because of the uptake by muscles
When is cortisol released?
in response to physical, mental and emotional stress
What is the role of cortisol in the body?
breaks down protein to amino acids, supports the action of growth hormone (glucogenesis), stops the action of insulin to keep blood glucose levels up and it increases triglyceride breakdown
When are cortisol levels highest?
following long duration activity
What does a greater exercise intensity mean?
a greater catecholamine release and an increase in glycogenolysis
What does extended exercise cause?
an increase in glucagon and cortisol which increases glucogenesis
What does cortisol do in terms of protein breakdown?
create amino acids for the liver



acts as a insulin agonist for less glucose uptake
What may hormones do to liver glucose?
deplete, causing blood glucose to fall
What happens to fat usage during exercise?
it goes up to prevent the body from running out of glucose
What does cortisol accelerate?
mobilization and use of free fatty acids during exercise where levels peak after about 30-45 minutes where catecholamines and growth hormone take over
What do most sports (especially team sports) use a combination of?
strength, endurance and speed
What must a trainer make decisions based on?
the client's needs and starting point
What are a few things to consider when creating a new training program?
age, fitness, sport age and goals
Why is it not easy to set priorities when creating a program plan for a client?
pressure from client's for a "quick fix"
What aspect of training should be considered first when creating a program plan for a client? Why?
strength because if the client does not have enough strength, they will not be able to do the exercise properly which may result in injury
What else should be considered when creating a program plan for a client?
range of motion and flexibility of client
What aspect of training is not a good idea to train together when creating a program plan for a TRAINED client?
strength and endurance
Strength and endurance is a good idea to train together what type of client?
an untrained client
What are tips for daily programming for beginners?
- posture and strength work should always be done first

- it is best to learn a technique while rested


- you are less likely to injure yourself due to fatigue in core


- postural work is important to the success in other types of activity


- strength work can have a cardio component
What did Hickson 1980 find?
that 10 weeks of leg strength work increased absolute VO2 max 47% increase in cycling and 12% increase in running time to exhaustion
How many times a week should one workout?
depends how many times someone can perform at high levels during the week and how often one can work before burnout
How much exercise should a 18 - 64 year old accumulate to achieve health benefits?
at least 150 minutes of moderate to vigorous-intensity aerobic physical activity per week in bouts of 10 minutes or more
What is a beneficial activity to add to any fitness program?
muscle and bone strengthening activities using major muscle groups at least 2 days per week
What should you follow for weekly integration of strength and endurance in a training program?
guidelines for periodization
What are the guidelines for periodization?
speed and strength first then extend anaerobic activity then aerobic activity



ALWAYS have speed and strength first if you are doing both in a cycle together
When is speed and strength in separate cycles then endurance?
during a fully periodized cycle
A month of low speed training may be ____ in both short and long term
detrimental
What alone does not make a great athlete in many sports?
physiological ability
What are other factors that make a great athlete in many sports?
technique, decision making and seeing



training must include ALL elements
What does practice need to be designed on?
technical practice (skills)
tactical practice (decision making)

physiology
How should you practice for sport?
with all three items together



physical responses to decisions have to be practiced as part of tactical work