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60 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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the Atkinson-Shiffrin model |
Includes 3 memory stores: - Sensory memory - Short term memory - Long term memory Stores: Retain info in memory without using it for any specific purpose (like hard drive on comp) Control processes: Shift into from one memory to another |
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Attention Encoding Retrieval |
Attention: a control process that selects which info to be passed on to short term memory Encoding: The process of storing info on long term memory Retrieval: Bring info from long term memory back to short term memory |
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Encoding Imagery and Elaboration |
Imagery: using visual image to represent the words to be remembered Elaboration: linking a stimulus to other info at the time of encoding |
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Encoding
Effortful processing vs. Automatic processing |
Effortful processing: Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort Automatic processing: Unconscious encoding of incidental info (space, time, frequency) |
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Sensory memory |
A memory store that accurately holds perceptual info for a very brief moment of time Iconic memory: the visual form of sensory memory (held for about 1/2 - 1 sec) Echoic memory: the auditory form of sensory memory (held for about 5 sec) |
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Selective attention |
Focusing awareness on one particular event, task, or stimulus |
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Short term memory |
A memory store with limited capacity and duration (less than a minute) |
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Short term memory Chunking |
Organizing smaller units of info into larger, more meaningful units |
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Long term memory |
Hold info for extended periods of time, if not permanently. Has no capacity limitations Prospective memory: remembering to perform actions in the future Retrospective memory: remembering events from the past or previously learned info |
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Long term memory Tip of the tongue phenomenon |
When you are able to retrieve similar sounding words or words that start with same letter but can't quite retrieve the word you actually want |
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Long term memory Declarative memories (explicit memories) and Nondeclarative memories (implicit memories) |
Declarative memories: Memories that we are consciously aware of and that can be verbalized, including facts about the world and personal experiences Nondeclarative memories: Include actions or behaviours that you can remember and perform without awareness. |
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Declarative memory Episodic memory and Semantic memory |
Episodic memories: Declarative memories for personal experiences that seem to be organized around "episodes" and are recall from a first-person perspective Semantic memories: Declarative memories that include facts about the world |
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Nondeclarative memory Procedural memories |
Patterns of muscle movements (motor memory) such as how to walk or drive a car |
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Serial position effect |
In general, most ppl will recall the first few items from a list and the last few items, but only an item or two from the middle |
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The Working Memory Model Rehearsal |
Repeating info until you do not need to remember it anymore Maintenance rehearsal: Prolonging exposure to info by repeating it Not very effective to facilitate encoding that leads to formation of long term memory Elaborative rehearsal: prolonging exposure to info by thinking about its meaning Significantly improves the process of encoding. Improve long term learning and remembering |
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The Working Memory Model Working memory |
A model of short term memory that includes a combination of memory components that can be temporary store small amounts of info for a short period of time |
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Working memory Phonological loop |
A storage component of working memory that relies on rehearsal and that stores info as sounds, or an auditory code Can be very active without affecting memory for visual and |
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Working memory Visuospatial sketchpad |
A storage component of working memory that maintains visual images and spatial layouts in a visuospatial code Keep you up to date where objects around you and where you intend to go Feature binding: The process of combining visual features into a single unit |
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Working memory Episodic buffer |
A storage component of working memory that combines the images and sounds from the other two components into coherent, story-like episodes. |
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Working memory Central executive |
The control center of working memory, it coordinates attention and the exchange of info among the three storage components |
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Long term potentiation |
Demonstrated that there is an enduring increase in connectivity and transmission of neural signals between nerve cells that fire together |
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Consolidation |
The process of converting short term memories to long term memories in the brain Initial strengthening of synapses and longer-term consolidation of connections allow formation of new memories => provide ability to learn and adapt Cellular consolidation: When neurons fire together a number of times, they will adapt and make changes more permanent. Involves physical changes to the synapse between the cells |
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Amnesia |
Profound loss of at least one form of memory |
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Amnesia Retrograde vs. Anterograde amnesia |
Retrograde amnesia: Loss of memories for events that occurred prior to amnesia Anterograde amnesia: Loss of memories for events that occurred after amnesia |
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Amnesia Infantile amnesia |
Inability to remember events from one’s early life - First memories usually from age 3-4 years - May be related to language development - Hippocampus is one of the last brain structures to mature |
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Reconsolidation |
The hippocampus functions to update, strengthen, or modify existing memories |
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Cross-cortical storage |
Long term declarative memories are distributed throughout the cortex of the brain, rather than being localized in one region |
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Storage |
The time and manner in which info is retained between encoding and retrieval. |
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Level of processing Shallow vs. Deep processing |
Shallow processing: Involves more superficial properties of a stimulus, such as the sound or spelling of a word
Deep processing: Generally related on an item's meaning or its function. Associated with better retention and retrieval |
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Deep processing levels
Self-referene effect |
Occurs when you think about info in terms of how it relates to you or how it is useful to you |
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Deep processing levels Survival processing |
When items are processed as they relate to survival, they are more likely to be recalled |
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Memory retrieval Recognition vs. Recall |
Recognition: Involves identifying a stimulus or piece of info when it is presented to you Recall: Involves retrieving info when asked, but without that info being presented during that retrieval process |
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Memory retrieval Retrieval cues |
Hints that help to prompt our memory The more detailed the retrieval cue, the easier it is for us to produce the memory |
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Memory retrieval Encoding specificity principle |
Retrieval is most effective when it occurs in the same context as encoding |
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Memory retrieval Context-dependent forgetting |
Change in environment influences the forgetting Can be countered by context reinstatement effect (occurs when you return to the original location and the memory suddenly comes back) |
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Memory retrieval State dependent memory |
Retrieval is more effective when your internal state matches the state you were in during encoding |
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Memory retrieval Mood dependent memory |
If the type of mood at encoding and retrieval match, then memory was superior Mood has little effect on recognition memory. Has much larger effects on recall-based tests |
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Flashbulb memory |
An extremely vivid and detailed memory about an event and the conditions surrounding how one learned about the event |
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Forgetting Forgetting curve |
Most forgetting occurs right away. The rate of forgetting eventually slow to the point where one does not seem to forget at al |
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Forgetting Encoding failure |
We can't attend to everything in our environment Some strategies are not effective at helping us encode info |
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Forgetting Storage failure |
Decay theory: Proposes that forgetting occurs because memory traces fade with time Interference theory: Proposed that ppl forget info because of competition from other materials |
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Proactive vs. Retroactive interference |
Proactive interference: a process which the first info learned occupies memory, leaving fewer resource left to remember new info Retroactive interference: the most recently learned info overshadows some older memories that have not yet made it into long term memory |
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Forgetting Retrieval failure |
- Interference may be a retrieval failure - We may be motivated to forget things that are distressing and we try not to think about them (repression) - Mismatch between retrieval cues and encoding |
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Mnemonic
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A technique intended to improve memory for specific info |
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Mnemonic Method of loci and Link method |
Method of loci: A mnemonic that connects words to be remembered to locations along a familiar path Link method: Forming a mental image of items to be remembered in a way that links them together |
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Mnemonic Acronyms First-letter technique Narrative method |
Acronyms: Pronounceable words whose letters represent the initials of an important phrase or set of items First-letter technique: A related mnemonic to acronyms. Use the first letters of a set items to spell out words that form a sentence Narrative method: Create a story that includes all the words in an appropriate order |
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Mnemonic Acrostic and Rhyming |
Acrostic: phrase or poem in which the 1st letter of each word or line serves as a cue to help you recall the info Rhyming: make up a rhyme that includes the info you are trying to remember |
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Mnemonic Dual coding |
Occurs when info is stored in more than 1 form |
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Mnemonic Testing effect |
The finding that taking practice tests can improve exam performance, even without additional studying |
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Schemas |
Organized clustered of memories that constitute one's knowledge about events, objects, and ideas
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Constructive memory |
A process by which we first recall a generalized schema and then add in specific details Schemas can affect our memory in 2 ways: 1. Organization: when we encounter new situation, some info will fit our schemas better than others => info that fits is easier to recall 2. Distinctiveness: when we encouter new situation, some info will not fit our schemas. If that new info is unusual => easy to recall. If that new info not that weird => likely to be forgotten |
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Memory reconstruction False memory |
Remembering events that did not occur, or incorrectly recalling details of an event |
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Memory reconstruction Misinformation effect |
When info occurring after an event becomes part of the memory for that event |
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Memory reconstruction Imagination inflation |
The increased confidence in a false memory of an event following repeated imagination of the event |
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Memory reconstruction Guided imagery |
Technique used by some clinicians to help ppl recover details of events that they are unable to remember |
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Memory reconstruction Recovered memory |
A memory of a traumatic event that is suddenly recovered after blocking the memory of that event for a long time Recovered memory controversy: a heated debate among psychologists about the validity of recovered memories |
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Fuzzy trace theory |
A theory that experiences can be stored in memory either verbatim or in terms of their basic meaning (gist) |
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Memory Development in Childhood |
- Infants have memories of things they experienced prenatally - Young babies can remember actions they performed for up to several weeks at a time - Memory improves rapidly in infancy and toddlerhood - Starting in preschool children use memory strategies - Older children and adolescents use more complex strategies |
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Children as Eyewitnesses |
- Children tend to have high rates of “false-positives” during police line-up identification procedures - Children are more susceptible to suggestion |
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Children as Eyewitnesses Practice for interviewing children |
- Interview children as soon as possible after the event - Encourage children to tell the truth and say “I don’t know” - Start by having the child describe the event in his/her own words - Use open-ended questions, rather than specific questions - Allow children to feel comfortable by talking about a neutral event before starting to talk about the event of interest - Ask questions that consider alternate explanations of the event |
