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267 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is soil comprised of?
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mineral and organic material
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What is another name for the raw materials ?
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Parent material
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What provides the parent material for soil formation and development?
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Weathering
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The array of soil layers; their sequence from top to bottom
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Soil profile
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What is another name for the bottom of the soil profile?
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bedrock
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a distinct layer of soil within the soil profile
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Soil horizon
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What are the properties of soil?
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color, texture (clay, sand, silt), structure, consistency (cohesion), porosity, moisture
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What are the components of soil?
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minerals, organic matter, water, air
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elements or compounds with a crystalline structure; found in all soils
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minerals
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What kind of structure do minerals have?
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crystalline
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What are the building blocks of rocks?
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minerals
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the part originally from living matter
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organic matter
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decaying matter of plants, animals, and their waste products
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organic matter
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What fills the spaces in the soil or forms a thin film around the particles?
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water
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What fills pore spaces in the soil?
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water and air
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What are 2 types of parent material?
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residual soil, transported soil
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made from the underlying rock
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residual soil
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made from material not found in underlying rock
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transported soil
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What happens in the making of soil if temp and precip. differ?
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you will yield different soils, even from the same parent material
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decomposers, microorganisms, bacteria, fungi, type of humus or organic matter?
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Biological agents of soil making
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flat vs. steep slopes; windward vs. leeward slopes; sun exposure
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topography
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For a given place, what does more time mean?
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more complete development and increased thickness of soil
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What are the 4 processes by which soil horizons are developed?
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addition, transformation, depletion, translocation
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grains of soil made by adding material to the soil already in place; adding organic matter
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addition
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weathering of rock, minerals, and soil particles already present; physically or chemically changing them
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transformation
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particles are carried out of an area and downward thru soil by percolating water to an area below
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depletion
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deposition of particles in a lower area from an area above
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translocation
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What are the main horizons?
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o, a, e, b, c, r
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organic horizon, consisting entirely of organic material
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O horizon
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organic horizon, consisting entirely of organic material
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O horizon
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Top most layer of soil
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o horizon (by addition)
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upper most layer developed from parent material
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A horizon
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upper most layer developed from parent material
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A horizon
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What gives A horizon it's color?
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It is colored dark by organic material from above
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How is A horizon formed?
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transformation
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lighter colored layer just below A horizon
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E horizon
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How is E horizon created?
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by depletion downward of certain soil particles
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Which layer takes the most time to develop?
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B horizon
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Which layer takes the most time to develop?
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B horizon
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Which layer takes the most time to develop?
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B horizon
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How is B horizon created?
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by TRANSLOCATION of particles from the A and E horizons above
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How is B horizon created?
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by TRANSLOCATION of particles from the A and E horizons above
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How is B horizon created?
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by TRANSLOCATION of particles from the A and E horizons above
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How is B horizon created?
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by TRANSLOCATION of particles from the A and E horizons above
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where the parent material is transformed by weathering into soil particles to become future soil
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C horizon
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How is C horizon created?
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transformation
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Where solid rock (bedrock) is first affected by weather
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R horizon
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Soil layer that is a mixture of large pieces of rock and future soil
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R horizon
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Soil layer that is a mixture of large pieces of rock and future soil
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R horizon
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Those layers in which plant roots are most effective
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Solum (aka Sol)
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Which horizons are Solum?
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A, E, B
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Column of soil, extending from the O horizon into the C horizon
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Pedon (aka Ped)
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Naturally occurring clump of soil
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ped
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a term used to describe a soil, similar to a clay or sand, but based on the percent of sand, silt, and clay and NOT particle size
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Loam
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The ability of a soil to hold water against the downward pull of gravity
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field capacity
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Does sand have a high or low field capacity?
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Low
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The type or arrangement of a soil's peds
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soil structure
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What does soil structure play a role in?
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determining a soil's field capacity
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What are 4 soil structures?
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platy, prismatic, blocky or angular, spheroidal or granular
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layered peds, like flakes stacked horizontally
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platy
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peds arranged in columns
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prismatic
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straight sided, irregularly shaped peds
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blocky or angular
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small, rounded shaped peds
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spheroidal or granular
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can be used to indicate the organic content and fertility of soil and the type of minerals and elements that are in the soil
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soil color
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What does dark brown or black soils mean?
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high organic content
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What does red or orangish soil mean?
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High Fe and/ or Al oxide content
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What is the breakdown of soil taxonomy?
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12 orders, 53 suborders, 230 great groups
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soils of recent origin
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entisols
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show the beginings of a weakly developed B horizon
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Inceptisols
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Clay righ soils which swell or shrink with moisture
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Vertisols
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What are andisols developed from?
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volcanic ash
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water saturated organic soils
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histosols
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water saturated organic soils
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histosols
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Dry solids found in most desert areas
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Aridisols
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What is common in aridisols?
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salinization
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grassland soils of high agricultural value; such as under the Great Plains
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Mollisols
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Thick O horizon
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Mollisols
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Moderately weathered deciduous forest soils; moist, highly mineral-rich soils
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alfisols
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Soils of coniferous (needle leaf evergreen, pine) forests, highly acidic soils
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Spodosols
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warm, wet climate soils with a high clay content in the B horizon
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Ultisols
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Where are Ultisols found?
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in the SE US
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tropical areas with high rainfall (rain forests)
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Oxisols
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What are oxisols rich in?
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FE and AL oxides
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What are oxisols subject to?
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laterization
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cold and frozen soils subject ot crytoturbation (frost churning)
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Gelisols
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What are the 12 orders of soil taxonomy?
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Entisols, Inceptisols, Vertisols, Andisols, Histosols, Aridisols, Mollisols, Alfisols, Spososols, Ultisols, Oxisols, Gelisols
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flora
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plants
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fauna
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animals
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the geography of flora and fauna
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biogeography
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the variety of life forms, the ecological roles they perform and the genetic diversity they contain
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Biodiversity
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How many species are there?
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1.75 million identified
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variety in the genetic makeup among individuals within a species
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Genetic Diversity
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variety among the species or distinct types of organisms found in different habitats of the planet
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species diversity
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variety of forests, deserts, grasslands, streams, lakes, oceans, coral reefs, wetlands, and other biological communities
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Ecological Diversity
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biological and chemical process or functions such as energy flow and matter cycling needed for the survival of species and biological communities
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Functional Diversity
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atom, molicule, protoplasm, cell, tissue, organ, organ system, organism, population, community, ecosystem, biosphere
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building blocks
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plant distribution
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phytogeography
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animal distribution
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zoogeography
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the process of converting carbon dioxide and water into carbohydrates and oxygen using sunlight as the energy source
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photosynthesis
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Where does photosynthesis occur?
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in the cells of plants which contain chloroplasts which contain chlorophyll (pigment)
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What does photosynthesis turn sunlight (energy) into?
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glucose
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What makes respiration go up?
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increase temp.; if increase respiration then decrease efficiency of photosynthesis
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What are the limitations of photosynthesis?
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rate of respiration; availability of water; rate of evaporation and transpiration
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What happens if you increase the water availability for a plant?
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then increase CO2 uptake by the plant which increases photosynthesis
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What happens if you increase the rate of evaporation for a plant?
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decrease efficiency of photosynthesis
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useful chemical energy
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biomass
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plant biomass
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phytomass
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What is created directly by photosynthesis?
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phytomass
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What is created INDIRECTLY by photosynthesis?
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animal biomass
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Where are the highest amounts of biomass created?
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warm, wet areas
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the net photosynthesis for a given community; this considers all growth and reduction factors that affect the amount of biomass fixed in an ecosystem
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Net Primary Productivity
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What does photosynthesis minus respiration equal?
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Net Primary Productivity
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the chemical energy made by plants to live, grow, reproduce, etc
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respiration
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What is an example of energy flow within a system?
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the leaf uses some of the energy it converts from radiative to chemical form (this is respiration)
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What is an example of energy flow between systems?
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sunlight strikes a leaf of a plant, which turns radiative energy (sunlight) into chemical energy (carbohydrate), which is energy (food) for another organism, which may be the energy source (food) for yet another organism
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the pathways that energy may take from plants through various trophic levels
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food webs (food chains)
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the pathways that energy may take from plants through various trophic levels
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food webs (food chains)
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what eats what
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trophic levels
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each step or stage of the food web
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trophic level
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those that make their own food
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autotrophs
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What are some autotrophs?
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plants or primary producers
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those that must consume other organisms to get the energy they need
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heterotrophs (animals)
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primary consumers
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herbivores
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secondary consumers
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carnivores
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What are 3 types of heterotrophs?
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herbivores, carnivores, omnivores
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those that obtain their energy by breaking down dead organic material
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decomposers
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what are some decomposers?
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bacteria, fungi
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how well energy is passed from one system to another, say along a food chain or web
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ecological efficiency
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What does energy do as it moves along a food chain?
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efficiency decreases
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What can be used to show the decrease in ecological efficiency?
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food pyramid
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the change in a population's genetic makeup, gene pool, through successive generations
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evolution or biological evolution
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long term, large scale changes that lead to new species (speciation)
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macroevolution
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small genetic changes that occur in a population
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microevolution
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random changes of the DNA in a cell
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mutation
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What brings about mutation?
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external agents (radiation, chemicals), mistakes during DNA replication
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What is the only source of totally new genetic raw material?
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mutations
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Are mutations common?
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no, relatively rare
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process by which a particular beneficial gene or set of genes is reproduced in succeeding generations more than other genes
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natural selection
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What does natural selection lead to?
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population of organisms with a greater proportion of individuals better adapted to certain environmental conditions
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any genetically controlled structural, physiological, or behavioral characteristic that helps an organism survive and reproduce under a set of environmental conditions
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adaptation or adaptive trait
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any genetically controlled structural, physiological, or behavioral characteristic that helps an organism survive and reproduce under a set of environmental conditions
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adaptation or adaptive trait
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coloration, mimicry, protective cover, gripping mechanisms
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structural adaptations
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hibernation, chemical protection
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physiological adaptations
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migration, various mating behaviors
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behavioral adaptations
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total way of life or role of a species in an ecosystem; all physical, chemical, and biological conditions a species needs to live and reproduce in an ecosystem
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ecological niche
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the physical location in which a species lives
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habitat
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group of organisms that resemble one another in appearance, behavior, chemical makeup and processes, and genetic structure
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species
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species with a broad ecological niche
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generalists
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can live in many different habitats, eat a variety of foods and tolerate a wide range of environmental conditions
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Generalists
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less prone to extinction
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generalists
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species with a narrow ecological niche
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specialists
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may live in only one type of habitat, tolerate only one type or a few types of food, tolerate only a narrow range of environmental conditions
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specialists
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more prone to extinction
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specialists
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species that normally live and thrive in a particular ecosystem in which they evolved or are naturally found
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native species
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species that migrate into an ecosystem or are deliberately or accidentally introduced into an ecosystem
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nonnative species
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exotic, alien or introduced species
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nonnative species
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species that serve as early warnings that a community or ecosystem is being degraded
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indicator species
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species that play roles affecting many other organisms in an ecosystem
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keystone species
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What are the three things that limit how quickly a species can adapt?
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a change in environmental conditions can lead to adaptation only for traits already present in the gene pool of a population; the population's ability to adapt can be limited by its reproductive capacity; even if a favorable trait is present, most of the population would have to die or become sterile so individuals with the trait could dominate and pass the trait on
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formation of two species from one species as a result of divergent natural selection in response to changes in environmental conditions
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speciation
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What are the two phases of speciation?
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geographic isolation, reproductive isolation
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separation of populations of a species into different areas over a long time
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geographic isolation
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long-term geographic separation of members of a particular sexually reproducing species
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reproductive isolation
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complete disappearance of a living species from the earth; happens when a species cannot adapt and successfully reproduce under new environmental conditions or it evolves into one or more new species
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extinction
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normal extinction of various species as a result of changes in local environmental conditions; few species here and there of varied taxa
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background extinction
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catastrophic, widespread extinction event in which major groups of species are wiped out over a short time
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mass extinction
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widespread, often global period during which extinction rates are higher than normal but not high enough to classify as a mass extinction
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mass depletion
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How many mass extinctions and depletions have occurred during the past 500 million years?
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2 extinctions, 3 depletions
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What are the abiotic (physical) factors that control the distribution of species?
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temp., water, light availability, landforms
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plants adapted to high temp
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megatherm plants
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plants adapted to withstand low temps
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microtherms
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adapted to low moisture conditions
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xerophyte
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adapted to high moisture conditions
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hygrophyte
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drop leaves
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deciduous
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compass direction a slope is facing
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slope aspect (south=warmer and drier)
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What are the biotic factors that affect species?
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interspecific competition, predation, parasitism, mutualism, commensalism, amensalism
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members of two or more species trying to use the same limited resources in an ecosystem
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interspecific competition
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the process of dividing up resources in an ecosystem (each organism developing its own ecological niche)
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resource partitioning
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situation in which an organism of one species (the predator) captures and feeds on parts or all of the prey (another species)
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predation
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interaction between species in which one organism (the parasite) preys on another organism (the host) by living on or in the host; the parasite benefits and the host is often harmed
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parasitism
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species interaction in which the presence of one species is often essential to the survival of another species, but usually both species benefit from the interaction
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mutualism
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interaction between organisms of different species in which one organism benefits and the other is neither helped nor harmed to any great degree
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commensalism
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the inhibition of one species by another through chemical means
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amensalism
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the study of the distribution of plants and their ecosystems, both spatially and temporally
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phytogeography
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The cycle between the nonliving and living components of the environment of water, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur
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biochemical cycle
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the collection, purification and distribution of the earth's water supply through both the abiotic and biotic components of the environment
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hydrologic (water) cycle
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What are the steps of the hydrologic cycle?
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evapotranspiration, condensation, precipitation, runoff
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What are the consequences of the flow of water?
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causes soil erosion and moves weathered fragments of rock, adding to erosion in one place
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the flow of carbon, primarily as carbon dioxide through the atmosphere, hydrosphers, lithosphere and biosphere
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carbon cycle
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What is the key element in controlling the temps at earth's surface (is a greenhouse gas)
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carbon
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key element in the formation of organic molecules and compounds, upon which life on earth is based
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carbon
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What form is carbon stored as an energy source
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fossil fuels
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the movement of nitrogen in various chemical forms through the environment
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nitrogen cycle
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What is the most abundant form of nitrogen in which it CANNOT be used?
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N2
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How is nitrogen broken down?
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in lightening strikes
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process in which specialized bacteria convert gasseous nitrogen N2 into ammonia that can be used by plants
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nitrogen fixation
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ammonia in soil converted to nitrite ions by aerobic bacteria and nitrate ions which are taken up by plants; animals get their N by eating plants or herbivores
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Nitrification
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conversion of ammonia and ammonium
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denitrification
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What is important for plant growth but is a limiting factor in plant growth because of it's low abundance in soils?
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phosphorus
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can be added as hydrogen sulfide from active volcanoes and the decay of orgaic matter by anaerobic bacteria
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sulfur
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broadest justifiable division of plants and animals; an assemblage or association of plants and animals that forms a regional ecological unit
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biome
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What are the basic types of biomes?
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deserts, grasslands, forests
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How many layers does the rainforest canopy have?
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3
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tall, closely spaced broad leafed evergreen trees, well developed
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tropical rainforest
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what is a major medium for transporting nutrients within the environment?
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water
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conversion of nitrogen rich organic compounds into ammonia
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ammonification
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What is normally found as a salt?
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phosphate
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What can increased amounts of phosphorus lead to
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increased plant, bacteria, and algae growth which leads to oxygen depletion by the subsequent decompostion of the dead organic matter by aerobic decomposers
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What react together to form sulfuric acid?
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sulfur trioxide gas and water
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the study of the distribution of plants and their ecosystems, both spatially and temporally
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plant geography
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highest biodiversity of any terrestrial environment
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Tropical rainforest
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Less dense canopy than tropical rainforest with less well developed canopy layers
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Tropical deciduous forest
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What is another name for tropical deciduous forest?
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tropical scrub
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What pronounced period does a tropical deciduous forest have?
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dry season;
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dominated by tall grassland with widely spaced trees
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tropical savanna
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Sparse vegetation or none at all due to low precip and high evapotranspiration
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Desert
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What type of vegetation is in the desert?
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xerophytic or succulent
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What are the two types of deserts?
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tropical (warm), Mid-latitude (cold)
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Dominated by sod forming grasses
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temperate or mid latitude grassland
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dominated by broadleaf deciduous trees of eastern US, Europe, and eastern China; also large areas of mixed deciduous and needle leaf evergreen trees esp. in SE US
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temperate or midlatitude deciduous and mixed forest
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needle leaf trees of US northwest coast
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Temperate rainforest
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What is another name for the temperate rainforest?
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temperate evergreen forest
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consists of widely spaced evergreen and deciduous trees and hard or waxy-leaved evergreen bushes
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Mediterranean Scrub or shrubland
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dominated by cyclic fire distrubance
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mediterranean scrub or shrubland
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dominated by coniferous or cone bearing trees
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northern coniferous forest
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what is the norther coniferous forest AKA?
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Boreal forest in Canada or the Taiga in Siberia
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dominated by mosses, lichens, sedges (marsh grasses) and a few dwarf trees
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tundra
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what controlls the tundra?
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permafrost
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somewhat predictable process in which one set or assemblage of plant species replaces an existing assemblage, over a long period of time
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ecological succession
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sequential development of communities in a bare area that has never been occupied by a community of organisma or an area that has been recently denuded of an existing community and the associated soil and is thus starting in a condition of bare rock
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primary succession
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sequential development of communities in an area in which vegetation has been removed or destroyed but the soil is not destroyed; some plants and seeds may still exist in the soil
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secondary succession
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one way succession such that a particular stage or assemblage is not repeated
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linear autogenic succesion
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stages or assemblages can be repeated and often are
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cyclic autogenic succession
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change in composition brought about by outside forces or disturbance
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allogenic succession
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a kind of endpoint or final stage where the plant assemblage is in balance or best suited for the existing climate and soil characteristics
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climax community
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the geographical distribution of animal species and populations on the earth's surface
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zoogeography
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What are two major divisions of aquatic life zones
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saltwater (marine); freshwater
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What are the three layers of the aquatic zone?
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surface, middle, and bottom
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areas where freshwater and saltwater mix
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estuary
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land areas covered with saltwater all or part of the year; (salt marshes and mangrove forest swamps)
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coastal wetlands
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found in relatively shallow, tropical waters
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coral reefs
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What are the 3 ecosystems of the coastal zone of the marine system?
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estuaries; coastal wetlands; coral reefs
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What are the 3 vertical zones of open sea?
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euphotic (high sunlight), bathyal, abyssal (low sunlight)
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How are lakes classified?
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based on nutrient content and primary productivity
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newly formed lake, nutrient poor, deep, crystal clear/blue water
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oligotrophic lake
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nutrient rich lake, large supply of nutrients; shallower, murky brown or green
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eutrophic lake
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lake in between oligotrophic and eutrophic
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mesotrophic lake
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What are the 3 zones of a river?
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source, transition, flood plain
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mountain streams at high elevation
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source zone
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wider, lower elevation streams
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transition zone
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area of rivers which empty into the ocean
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flood plain zone
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inland wetland dominated by grasses
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marsh
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wetland in a depression carved by a glacier
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prairie potholes
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inland wetland dominated by trees and shrubs
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swamp
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wetland that receives excess water during heavy rains and floods
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floodplains
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zoogeographic realm that encompasses North america, greenland and the central highlands of mexico
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Neoarctic
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what is one of the least diverse realms?
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neoarctic
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zoogeographic realm that is europe, northern asia, and north africa
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paleoarctic
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What do the paleoarctic and neoarctic sometimes combine as
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holarctic
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zoogeographic realm that is coastal mexico through central and south america
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neotropical
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what is one of the richest and most varied faunal assemblages?
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neotropical
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zoogeographic realm that is sub saharan africa
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paleotropical (ethiopian)
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zoogeographic realm that is Austrailia, New Guinea and nearby islands
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australian
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Highest diversity of marsupial mammals
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Australian
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only place where monotreme mammals reside
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austrailian realm
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zoogeographic realm with no endemic or native mammals, only those brought in by humans
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New Zealand
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should there be protected areas that are a Single Large or Several Small reserves
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SLOSS debate
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