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89 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Utilitarianism |
Actions should be chosen based on what brings the greatest happiness to greatest amount of people |
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Felicific calculus |
Measuring pleasure/pain in terms of specific criteria (duration, intensity, certainty, etc..) |
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Expected utility |
Predicted reward value of a given option (magnitude of the reward × probability of delivery) |
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Irrationality |
Caused because of relative, not absolute preferences. Adaptive because present in animals. |
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Risk aversion |
Smaller, certain reward seeking when stand to gain insula, amygdala |
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Risk seeking |
Larger, uncertain reward seeking when stand to Lose ventral striatum, ventromedial PFC |
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Framing effect |
Individuals may choose inconsistently between two options, depending on whether the options are framed in terms of possible losses or gains. Gains frame - choose certain. Losses frame - choose risky. |
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Endowment effect |
People assign more value to a given item if they own it, lower if they dont |
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Value over time |
Disproportionately high value to immediate reward, low to delayed reward. |
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Attribution effect |
We focus on other peoples internal characteristics to explain their behavior, situations to focus our own. |
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Dual systems model |
Two systems for decision making: intuitive- older, unconscious, implicit, parallel processing, high capacity, fast, hard to explain. Rational- Newer, conscious, explicit, logical conclusions, sequential processing, low capacity, slow. |
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Delay discounting |
Sensible decisions between things when both in remote future but impulsive when comparing now and later rewards. (Intuitive - medial limbic vs rational - lateral frontal and parietal system) |
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Axiom of revealed preferences |
Giving people a choice between two options to study subjective value |
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Dextroamphetamine |
Dopamine agonist. Used to improve attention span, reduce hyperactivity in ADHD. Dose dependent. |
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Darwin theory on emotions |
Emotional expressions - way to send signals about otherwise unavailable internal states. Homologous. |
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James-Lange theory and caveats |
Bottom up theory of emotions. Body's physiological response causes emotions. Caveats: 1.removing visceral organs does not abolish emotional behavior. 2.Physiological responses can be nonspecific to single emotional state. 3.Emotions can be faster than bodily responses. 4. Artificial body responses do not produce emotions. |
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Cannon-Bard Theory |
Top down theory of emotions. Emotional stimulus causes physiological responses. |
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Schacter and Singer Theory |
Two-factor theory of emotion. Emotional states arise from synthesis of the bodily physiological reactions detected by the brain (bottom up) and cognitive context under which interpretation happens (top down). Epinephrine injection study. Suspension bridge study. |
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Papez circuit |
Interconnected set of regions important for emotional experience, coordinate responses to emotional stimuli |
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Autonomic pathway |
Stimulates sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems in hypothalamus |
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Neuroendocrine pathway |
Controls activity of endocrine glands which release hormones in hypothalamus |
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Motivational pathway |
In hypothalamus, organizes goal-directed behavior with help from cerebral cortex |
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Kluver-Bucy syndrome |
Results after removal of amygdala and includes inappropriate motivational responses such as hyperorality, hypersexuality, constant masturbation, indiscriminate copulation (monkeys). In humans, selective amygdala lesions- learning impairments and expressions of fear |
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Urbach-Wiethe disease |
Impairment in ability to experience or recognize fear (excitement instead). Patient S.M. |
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Anhedonia |
Inability to feel pleasure |
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Galvanometer |
Measures changes in electrical resistance of skin like ones produced by stress |
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Somatic marker hypothesis |
Emotional states can direct behavior by generating internal bodily states (feelings) - somatic markers, which can be used to guide decisions without external cues. Used in gambling task. |
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Visceral responses |
Autonomic, neuroendocrine signals in response to sensory inputs - most appropriate response given a stimulus (like amygdala) and generates fear response (like amygdala) |
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Contextual modulation of emotions |
Brain needs access to current behavior, goals, expectations, memories, etc.. |
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Emotional reappraisal |
Adjustment of emotional responses to outside stimuli based on context. Picture test to attend to or repress images. Depressed > vmPFC > amygdala. Healthy > VlPFC > vmPFC > less to amygdala. Successful reappraisal of bad images > upregulation of nucleus accumbens, deregulation of amygdala |
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Serotonin |
Regulates mood. Diet affects tryptophan which affects serotonin. Serotonin boost drugs treat depression. |
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Norepinephrine |
Agonists alleviate depression symptoms. Nudge negative to pos |
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GABA |
Inhibitory NT. Affects anxiety. Benzodiazepines are gaba agonists - high dose anesthesia, low dose - anxiety reduction (anxiolytic effect) - reduced activity in anterior cingulate cortex, anterior insula |
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Addiction |
Affects circuitry of motivation and reward, distorts from normal state |
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Motivation |
Related to judgement, ability to predict what is most important in any given scenario. Brain must set priorities. |
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Basic drives |
Many behaviors motivated by internal drives (hypothalamus) and external drives (amygdala) |
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Interoceptors |
How hypothalamus receives info (also from blood through windows in blood-brain barrier) |
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Allostasis |
Stress response. Process of achieving bodily stability through physiological or behavioral changes when faced with external challenges. Beneficial short term but harmful long term. |
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Reward |
Motivating stimulus that moves the bodies homeostatic set point closer to its ideal set point and can promote behaviors that lead to the delivery of the reward |
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Punishment |
Moves bodies homeostatic balance farther from ideal set point and can reduce behaviors that lead to delivery of punishment. |
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Primary vs secondary rewards |
Directly address homeostatic rewards - primary. Abstract rewards connected to primary - secondary |
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Prediction error |
Discrepancy between expected and actual outcome. (Monkey, juice, push bar) positive when outcome is better, negative when worse. Operant conditioning. |
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Liking |
Pleasantness of stimulus right now |
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Wanting |
Brains prediction of liking a stimulus in the future. (May not be accurate) addiction. |
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Mu & delta opioid receptors |
In brain. Analgesia, euphoric, rewarding effects (morphine, heroin) mu-opioid --- liking. |
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Kappa-opioid receptors |
Mediate aversive effects. Dysphoric effects. Agonists decrease pleasantness of natural rewards (changes our likes) |
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Dopamine |
NT for motivation, reward, learning. Originated in substantia nigra or ventral tegmental area. |
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Dopaminergic system |
Translate between different actions, behaviors, goals, etc (study vs sleep). Past experience > predictions about future esp in context of rewards. Activity of dopamine neurons increases for unexpected rewards. Learning: predictions get more response than rewards. Firing rate corresponds with prediction error. Wanting. |
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Distorted rewards |
Addiction. Provided signals for rewards even when there is no move closer to the ideal set point. |
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Tolerance |
More and more drug is needed because when NT system is bombarded with strong stimulation, neurons down regulate the effects by building less NT receptors and withdrawing present ones |
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Incentive sensitization |
Any cue associated with the drug comes to gain more value by repeated exposure to addictive substance and leads to wanting. |
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Withdrawal |
Occurs when attempts to cease consumption are made, aversive physical and psychological effects - because of down-regulation of the affected NT system and over-regulation of opposing NT systems |
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Pathological learning |
Natural: cues that predict reward > positive predictive value. Drug > all sensory cues associated with drug start to develop positive predictive value and it is higher than for natural rewards. Long lasting changes in brain. |
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Alcohol addiction treatment |
1. Manage withdrawals (GABA stimulators) 2. Medications to reduce risk of relapse (naltrexone -opioid antagosist, acamprosate- reestablish balance between GABA and glutamate, disulfiram- nausea and vomiting upon consumption) |
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Social motivation |
Social forces influence our emotions, motivations and behavior |
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Social perception |
Important signals are sent via nonverbal communication, mostly face |
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Fusiform face area location |
In ventral visual pathways. Recognizes faces |
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Prosopagnosia |
Inability to recognize faces. Not all or nothing. |
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Facial processing network |
Important for recognizing social emotional cues (facial expressions of basic emotions, gestures) diff regions respond more to specific emotions (fear & amugdala) |
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Social semantic knowledge |
Social concepts obligations and privileges of social roles, behavioral characteristics of individuals. Depends on temporal poles. |
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Theory of mind + experiment |
Capacity to attribute mental states to other individuals to understand that they have beliefs thoughts intentions and desires that may differ from our own. (First order for someone else's, second order for a third person's about someone else's). False belief test Sally and Anne and box and basket and ball. Age 5. |
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Mirror neurons |
Fire when action performed by self or others. Helpful for theory of mind. Lateral premotor cortex. External. |
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Autism |
Social and communication impairments, repetitive behaviors, restricted interests focused on outside world. Struggles with social intelligence and theory of mind. Self awareness deficits (similar levels in vmPFC for self and others) Superior temporal Sulcus , posterior cingulate and medial prefrontal cortex |
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Schizophrenia |
Psychiatric illness. Distortions in ToM functions, problems reasoning about others intentions, beliefs, desires. May lose distinction between own and others thoughts. Disorganized thought, behavior and speech, hallucinations and delusions, subtle impairments in cognition and motivation. Medial prefrontal cortex, posterior cingulate cortex, superior temporal lobes , insula, thalamus, striatum. Frontal lobes,smaller hippocampal volume. psychosis- deficits in perception of reality (hallucinations and delusions). Dysregulated dopamine NT? Recovery, unchanging, decline. |
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Empathy + areas+ experiment |
Subjective capacity to understand the experience of others (esp emotional state or perspective). Involves sensory side. Anterior cingulate cortex, cerebellum, brainstem/dorsal pons, bilateral anterior insula. (MRI scanner, game, pain experiment) |
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Emotional Theory of mind |
Ability to infer things about others without necessarily feeling empathy and even if contradictory to own state |
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Mimicry |
Reflexive, lower level function. When two people interact they gradually synchronize their emotional expressions . Midbrain nuclei |
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Complementarity |
Reverse mimicry. Emotional expression draws its opposite. Lower level, reflexive |
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Emotional contagion |
Lower level, reflexive. Tendency of emotional states to engender similar states in others. Mirror system. Anterior insula for disgust and pain |
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Psychopathy |
Superficial social normality but no emotional empathy. Manipulative, callous, antisocial behavior. Can understand ToM. No emotional contagion. Prefrontal cortex, temporal pole |
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Social emotions |
Emotions that depend on our assessment of what others think feel or do in response to our actions |
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Guilt |
Requires ToM. Causes us to adapt to social and moral norms. Posterior cingulate, retrosplenial cortex, temporal pole, STS, anterior insula |
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Social reward |
Positive facial expression, increase in reputation, positive feedback ventral striatum, dorsomedial prefrontal |
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Social aversion |
Ostracism, criticism, social defeat mPFC, striatum |
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Mirror test |
Spot of dye on face test. 18 months. Tests self awareness. ToM areas - temporal pole, tempoparietal junction, MPC, prenuceus |
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Somatoparaphrenia |
Failing to recognize limb as ones own. Can co-occur with anosognosia. mPFC, posterior insula, tempoparietal junction |
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Dementia |
Neurological disease category. Gradual deterioration of higher order cognitive functions (memory, language, etc) progressive, incurable mostly |
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Alzheimers |
Begins as mild cognitive impairment and progresses, worsens, death after 7-10 years. Primary problems with episodic memory, executive functions. Lose insight into deficits. Amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles. ApoE4 allele makes it more likely. No cure. |
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Frontotemporal Dementia |
Progressive athropy of frontal and temporal lobes (inferior frontal cortex and anterior temporal lobe). Dramatic personality changes, social behavior changes, intact episodic memory and spatial navigation. Unaware of inappropriate behaviour. |
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Semantic dementia |
Loss of abstract conceptual knowledge. If dementia primarily in anterior temporal lobe. |
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Huntington's disease |
Chorea (restless involuntary movements of the face, trunk, limbs), worsens, some dementia, psychiatric symptoms (depression, anxiety, etc), personality and social behavior changes. Over excitation because of loss of inhibitory neurons (Striatum). Progressive. Fatal in 10-30 years. Anterior caudate nucleus. |
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Tourette syndrome |
Movement disorder, motor and vocal tics. Can be accompanied by ADHD or OCD. Medial motor areas. Cingulate motor area during motor tics. |
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Obsessive compulsive disorder |
Obsessions - unwanted, distressing thoughts. Compulsions - compulsive, ritualistic behaviors often with difficult to resist urges aimed at neutralizing fears caused by obsessions. Categories: Contamination, fear of committing aggressive or harmful acts, obsession with symmetry or number. Corticostriatal loop hyperactivity. Caudate nucleus, basal ganglia, OFC. Some recover. Cognitive behavioral therapy. Deep brain stimulation |
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Positive symptoms. |
Present in patients of schizophrenia but not others (delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech) |
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Negative symptoms |
Features of normal cognition that are lost in schizophrenia (apathy, social withdrawal, etc) more resistant to treatment than positive symptoms |
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Bipolar disorder |
Mood disorder. Mania (euphoria or irritable mood) vs depression (low, despondent moods) euthymic (normal mood) disinhibition during mania may spur creativity. Trouble with sleeping, etc. No gene ventrolateral prefrontal cortex, anterior insula, dorsomedial prefrontal cortex, substantial cingulate cortex. Lithium treatment. Anti-epilectic and antipsychotic drugs. |
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Major depressive disorder |
Periods of severe, sustained low mood, difficulty experiencing pleasure or interest. Changes in sleep, appetite. Guilt. Suicidal thoughts. Genetic and environmental. SHT transporter allele (short-short) but caveat found stress only but not the env-gene interaction. Monoamine hypothesis (low levels of serotonin, norepinephrine, dopamine) subgenual cingulate cortex (modulates amygdala) is hyperactive orbitofrontal cortex and ventrolateral prefrontal cortex. Psychotherapy, pharmacotherapy, somatic therapy, electroconvulsive therapy, deep brain stimulation. |
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Attentional modulation source and site |
Source - frontoparietal, which affects activity of site - visual area |
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Leptin (where, signals what and why, what happens) |
In adipose tissue, is released when tissue fills with stored fat >hypothalamus > inhibit food consumption/energy storage |
