Extinction Of Species

Front 1

What are the 3 levels of biodiversity centrally dependent on species?

Back 1

1. Genetic- variation within species
2. Species- variety of different species in an area
3. Ecosystem- variety of physical environments and biotic communities over a landscape

Front 2

How many species are described? Is this a correct estimate?

Back 2

Currently 1.75 million species described, but it is estimated to be at least 10x more we don't know about

Front 3

What are parts of the world called that have high biodiversity? Where are they?

Back 3

these are called hot spots
usually in the tropics

Front 4

Are species immortal?

Back 4

No. The fate of every species is extinction. There is always an end to the evolutionary line

Front 5

Is the current mass extinction at a natural rate?

Back 5

No. It is exponentially larger than past mass extinctions (5 of them).

Front 6

What are the components of the evil quartet?

Back 6

Overkill
Introduced Species
Habitat loss and degradation
Ecosystem stress

Front 7

What are the reasons for overkill?

Back 7

Overexploitation because they are an important resource for us

Deliberate killing because we perceive them to be pests

Front 8

How do native species contribute to extinction crisis?

Back 8

Causes ecosystem stress because natives have not evolved ways to live with these exotics and they can destroy unprepared ecosystems

Front 9

What is the formula for human impact?

Back 9

I= P x A x T

Human impact = Population x Affluence x Technology

Front 10

What does all of biodiversity hinge on?

Back 10

the success and failure of a species

Front 11

What is biodiversity?

Back 11

the diversity of life on Earth

Front 12

What is the hierarchical organization of genetic diversity?

Back 12

Genes
Chromosomes
Individual
Variation within populations and among other populations

Front 13

Define what a species is.

Back 13

A group of interbreeding natural populations that are reproductively isolated from other such groups

Front 14

What is the ultimate factor for defining a species in the biological species concept?

Back 14

There must be reproductive isolating mechanisms to separate different species

Front 15

What is a sub species?

Back 15

Regionally distant species but can still interbreed

Front 16

What are the 3 times of speciation?

Back 16

Allopatric
Parapatric
Sympatric

Front 17

What is allopatric speciation?

Back 17

1. a barrier is created between a population separating them
2. Evolution occurs within both populations creating reproductive mechanisms
3. Now genetically distinct species if brought back together

Front 18

What is parapatric speciation?

Back 18

1. New niche is created
2. New genetic way of living --> new reproductive isolating mechanisms
3. Can no longer interbreed

Front 19

What is sympatric speciation?

Back 19

Mutations occur within the population and the individuals can no longer mate with the original population

Front 20

What is diversification?

Back 20

A founder species is introduced to a new area, and many new species arise from the founder by entering new niches

Front 21

What long does it take for speciation to occur?

Back 21

Using islands as a model, approximately 10-15k years

very slow process!

Front 22

What families are not well documented species wise?

Back 22

virus and bacteria are not well documented because they are hard to study and hard to find

Front 23

How do todays extinction rates compare to speciation rates?

Back 23

Extinction rates are rapid in comparison to very slow speciation rates

A rapid net loss of species occurs

Front 24

What is a native species?

Back 24

found naturally in a place

Front 25

What is an exotic specie?

Back 25

a non-native introduced by human activities

Front 26

What is an endangered (threatened) species?

Back 26

At risk of extinction

Front 27

What is an endemic species?

Back 27

found only in certain places

Front 28

What is a flagship species?

Back 28

can motivate people to protect a place

Front 29

What is an umbrella species/

Back 29

if protected , other species accommodated

Front 30

What is an indicator species?

Back 30

status reflects condition of ecosystem

Front 31

What is a keystone species?

Back 31

many key interactions with other species

Front 32

What is a biological community?

Back 32

all the species that occupy a particular area and the interactions among those species

Front 33

What is an ecosystem?

Back 33

a biological community with its associated physical and chemical environment

Front 34

What are ecosystem processes?

Back 34

water cycles, nutrient cycles, and energy capture

Front 35

What is ecosystem diversity?

Back 35

the complexity of the biological community and its interactions wit the environment and ecosystem processes

Front 36

What are ecosystem services?

Back 36

the range of benefits provided to people such as clean water and reduction in pllution

Front 37

Are species considered equal in an ecosystem?

Back 37

NO, there are different statuses

Front 38

What is the abundance and impact of a keystone species?

Back 38

High impact, low abundance

Front 39

What is the abundance and impact of a dominant species?

Back 39

High impact, high abundance

Front 40

What is the abundance and impact of a rare species?

Back 40

Low impact, low abundance

Front 41

What is the abundance and impact of a common species?

Back 41

Low impact, high abundance

Front 42

What is the richness in the measurement of species diversity?

Back 42

it is the tally of species in an area

Front 43

What is evenness in the measurement of species diversity?

Back 43

Relative abundance of species (is it rare or common?

Front 44

If Community A has a higher richness than Community B, who has higher biodiversity?

Back 44

Community A because it has more species

Front 45

If community A has a higher evenness than community B, who has the higher species diversity?

Back 45

community A . Can have same number of species (equal richness), but more evenly distributed and no species risk of extinction

Front 46

What is heterogeneity?

Back 46

combines richness and evenness

Front 47

What is the species area relationship?

Back 47

10x area increase results in 2x more speices

Front 48

According to the species area relationship, if you got rid of 90% of a habitat, how many species would be lost?

Back 48

50%

Front 49

What are the three types of geographical scale of diversity?

Back 49

alpha
beta
gamma

Front 50

What is alpha diversity?

Back 50

average number of species at sites of similar size and habitat type

Front 51

What is gamma divhersity?

Back 51

number of species over a large region encompassing many similar sites

number of species in all the areas total

Front 52

What is beta diversity

Back 52

rate of change of species across different sites ( gamma/alpha)

Front 53

What factors cause geographical differences in species richness?

Back 53

Environmental gradients
Islands vs continents
Disturbance regimes

Front 54

What are some environmental gradients that determine species richness?

Back 54

elevation- go up, fewer species
latitude- equator most, poles least
productivity- more productivity more species
complexity- more complex more species
time- longer been in existence, more species

Front 55

How are disturbance regimes beneficial?

Back 55

moderate level of disturbance results in higher species diversity

Allows no species to over run, and allows new species to enter new niches

Front 56

What are reasons that the rain forest is the most diverse?

Back 56

High productivity
large geographical area
great long term stability
constant environment
intense species interactions

Front 57

Is there congruence between taxa for endemic species?

Back 57

There can be, but not always

Front 58

What is extinction?

Back 58

death of the last individual of a specis

Front 59

Is extinction a natural process?

Back 59

Yes. Eventually all species become extinct at some point

Front 60

What are the two types of extinction?

Back 60

Phyletic extinction
Terminal extinctions

Front 61

What is a phyletic extinction?

Back 61

occurs when a species disappears in the process of evolving into one or more new species, but there is no net loss of diversity

Front 62

What is terminal extinction?

Back 62

occurs when a species disappears without evolving into new speices. There is a new loss of diversity

Front 63

What is the process of extinction step wise?

Back 63

1. Extraordinary change occurs in the species' environment
2. Survival rates, reproductive rates (or both) decline
3. Population size declines
4. The two types of extinction are possible

Front 64

What is the ultimate and proximate factor of the process of extinction?

Back 64

Ultimate- extraordinary change in the species' environment

Proximate- survival rates, reproductive rates (or both) decline

Front 65

What is a deterministic extinction?

Back 65

occurs when there is no doubt about the eventual outcome- extinction is 100% certain

Front 66

What is a stochastic extinction?

Back 66

occurs when there is some uncertainty about the outcome - extinction outcome is less than 100%

Front 67

What is a possible outcome for stochastic extinction?

Back 67

population declines can result in sufficient density-dependent compensation to stablize the population at a small size

Front 68

What is the probability that a species will go extinct if left as a small population?

Back 68

all up to chance ..good or bad stochasticity

Front 69

What is environmental stochasticity?

Back 69

chance changes in the species' environment that are harmful

Front 70

What is demographic stochasticity?

Back 70

chance changes in vital rates that are harmful

Front 71

What is genetic stochasticity?

Back 71

Chance changes in the species' gene pool that are harmful

Front 72

What are the 3 outcomes of bad genetic stochasticity?

Back 72

loss of rare alles- founder effect
loss of heterozygosity- genetic drift
fixation of deleterious alles- inbreeding

Front 73

What are some traits of a vulnerable to extinction species when the environment changes ?

Back 73

large body size
top of food chain
restricted geographic range
low intrinsic rate of growth
specialized niche
living in a normally stable environment

Front 74

How long do species typically last?

Back 74

1-10 million years without a mass extinction

Front 75

What is the background rate of extinction?

Back 75

.00001% - .0001% of species lost a year

Front 76

What characterizes a mass extinction?

Back 76

A much higher rate compared to the background extinction rate

particular groups targeted

regional/ global

occurs over a relatively short period of time

Front 77

What were the 5 mass extinctions of the past?

Back 77

Ordovician
Devonian
Permian
Triassic
Cretaceous

Front 78

Which mass extinction was considered the worst and why?

Back 78

Permian

Lost 95% marine life
lost 70% of land life
took over 50 million years to recover

Front 79

What characterized the Devonian extinction?

Back 79

Marine organisms primary victims
loss of 30% animal families
Caused by global cooling

Front 80

What characterized the Permian mass extinction?

Back 80

worst mass extinction

Front 81

What characterized the Triassic mass extinction?

Back 81

opened the door up for dinosaurs

Front 82

What characterized the Cretaceous mass extinction?

Back 82

demise of the dinosaurs as the dominant group

Front 83

What is the current extinction rate?

Back 83

.01% a year lost

Front 84

What two factors are the cause of the 6th mass extinction?

Back 84

Human tool making and cultural evolution

allowed us to become super predators and able to pass on the information

Front 85

What does the global extinction of species thousands of years ago model?

Back 85

prehistoric human migration

Front 86

What types of animals became the majority of extinctions with prehistoric humans?

Back 86

large herbivores (mega fauna)

Front 87

How did agriculture change humans relationship with wild species?

Back 87

domesticated plants and animals and began controlling breeding

began to persecute species that threatened our domesticates which led to threatening predatory species with extinction

also encroached on wild species land

Front 88

What human activity contributes to the most habitat loss?

Back 88

agriculture

Front 89

What is another negative effect of agriculture after habitat loss?

Back 89

introduction of exotic species (deliberate and accident)

Front 90

What are some ecosystem stressors?

Back 90

pollution
fragmentation

Front 91

What are the big trends of the current mass extinction?

Back 91

it is increasing at an accelerating pace
most of earth's biota is suffering losses with a lot of species threatened in complex ways
shift from species poor islands to species rich continents

Front 92

What is the single greatest threat to biodiveristy?

Back 92

habitat loss

Front 93

What is overkill?

Back 93

the deliberate non deliberate killing of a species (valuable or a nuisance) at a pace that it can't reproductively keep up

Front 94

Why is habitat loss so disastrous?

Back 94

because of the species area relationship, if we lose 90% of their habitat we lose 50% of the species

Front 95

What is habitat loss?

Back 95

occurs when the environment has been so changed that the species can no longer exist there

Front 96

What is habitat degradation?

Back 96

the quality of the environment has been changed in ways that severely reduce a species fitness

Front 97

What are the four major ecosystems of the U.S. that are being depleted?

Back 97

grassland prairies
old growth forest
wetlands
tropical forests

Front 98

What is a major form of habitat degradation?

Back 98

habitat fragmentation

Front 99

Which evil quartet member effects species the most?

Back 99

introduced species

Front 100

What are the types of overkill?

Back 100

commercial
subsistence
recreational
persecution of species
inadvertent killing

Front 101

What are some traits of species that are vulnerable to overkill?

Back 101

high commercial value
international commerce
international range/movements
human prejudice

rare
low rate of growth

Front 102

What is subsistence exploitation?

Back 102

local people using the resources for their livelihood

Front 103

Is subsistence exploitation more or less likely to lead to overexploitation?

Back 103

it is less likely but it can happen if population densities get too high and technology increase

Front 104

What is recreational exploitation?

Back 104

this includes hunting, fish, bird watching and eco tourism

Front 105

Does recreational exploitation lead to over exploitation?

Back 105

NO. it is heavily regulated with permits, laws and fines for consequences

sustainable

Front 106

What is persecution of pests?

Back 106

we deliberately kill a species due to our prejudice.

includes predator control

Front 107

What is a solution for persecution of pests?

Back 107

education and non lethal control alternatives

Front 108

What is inadvertent killing?

Back 108

animals killed while doing something else

(ie- cars, bycatch, etc)

Front 109

What are some solutions to inadvertent killing?

Back 109

simple technological solutions can really help

i.e- Turtle excluder devices in shrimp nets

Front 110

What are the two options for exploitation?

Back 110

overkill or sustainable harvesting

Front 111

What is the biological advantage of sustainable harvesting?

Back 111

when taking out some individuals in a population, the remaining individuals reproduce better and the population grows and the population stabilizes at a reduced size

Front 112

Which species can be harvested sustainably?

Back 112

potentially any, but there would be large variation in the yields and potentially not be worth it

Front 113

How can we regulate over harvesting?

Back 113

regulating take
regulate effort (permits, season)
regulate harvesting methods
utilize market forces
change culture

Front 114

What is the benefit for privatizing natural resources?

Back 114

most likely not going to over exploit their own resource

Front 115

What is tragedy of the commons?

Back 115

communally owned resource prone to abuse because the profits go to the exploiter and the costs get pushed onto society

Front 116

What is CITES?

Back 116

Convention of International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora

Front 117

Why are island biotas vulnerable to exotics?

Back 117

they live in isolation and are not adapted to deal with the damage of exotics to the biota environment


also due to the species area relationship the populations are very small

Front 118

What are the 4 main threats from exotic species?

Back 118

predation
competition
disease/parasitism
ecosystem modification

Front 119

What are some intentional reasons for introducing a new species?

Back 119

Bio control
ornamental
game for hunting/fishing

Front 120

What are some ways exotics accidentally get introduced to a new environment?

Back 120

stowaways
pet escapes

Front 121

What is the case of the native Hawaiian birds and disease?

Back 121

they have been pushed up to higher elevations where the disease spread from mosquitoes is not present in which to survive, but they will slowly get pushed out because there is no where left to go

Front 122

What other ecosystems are vulnerable to exotics?

Back 122

fragmented areas due to habitat loss
isolated lakes, ponds, rivers
mountain tops

Front 123

What are some problems that plants face with exotics?

Back 123

herbivorous animals
insect pests
plant diseases
competing plants

Front 124

Which commensal species is the most widespread and harmful of all exotics

Back 124

RATS

Front 125

How are cats invasives?

Back 125

they hunt species (birds, reptiles etc)
become top predator and push out other predators
transmit feline diseases

all of these cause major problems on island ecosystems

Front 126

What are feral cats unlike natural predators and just fit into the ecosystem?

Back 126

can exist at high densities
no regulation on population size
subsidized predators
even if well fed they still kill widlife

Front 127

What is deforestation?

Back 127

cutting down trees and clearing of forests
usually conversion of forest to something else

Front 128

What are the direct causes of deforestation?

Back 128

agriculture
cattle grazing
fuel wood gathering
commercial logging
development

Front 129

What are frontier forests?

Back 129

world's remaining and intact natural forest ecosystems

Front 130

What 3 countries have the remaining 70% of frontier forests?

Back 130

Russia, Brazil and Canada

Front 131

What is desertification?

Back 131

ongoing land and soil degradation in arid, semi-arid and semi-humid areas caused by human activities

Front 132

What are the characteristics of desertification?

Back 132

de-vegetation
brush invasion
groundwater depletion
salinzation of soil
severe erosion
sever loss of biodiversity

Front 133

What causes desertification?

Back 133

humans activities- agriculture (short crop rotation) , deforestation, over grazing, overuse

climatic changes - increase temp or precipitation

Front 134

What is a wetland?

Back 134

land which is saturated by water at a frequency and duration that allows for the growth of vegetation adapted for saturated soils

KEYSTONE HABITAT

Front 135

How can we provide habitat to species?

Back 135

protection- set aside

conservation- sustainable

restoration- restore to prior levels of biodiversity

Front 136

What are ecosystem stressors?

Back 136

any chemical, physical, or biological factor that can cause adverse effects on individuals, populations, communities or ecosystems

Front 137

What effect does stress have on an ecosystem?

Back 137

can absorb certain levels of stress due to their resiliency, but stressed beyond a certain point --> shift to new equilibrium and tend to lose biological diversity

Front 138

What human activities stress ecosystems?

Back 138

lose/addition of keystone species
pollution
climate change

Front 139

What is a trophic cascade?

Back 139

a series of trophic interactions that result in cascading changes in species composition and ecosystem function

Front 140

What are two causes for trophic cascades?

Back 140

accidental introductions of exotics or killing of natives (especially keystone species)

Front 141

Which stressor has the biggest effects on air and water

Back 141

Pollution!

Front 142

What is the hierarchial organization of biological systems affected by pollutants?

Back 142

individual
population
community
ecosystem
biosphere

Front 143

What is biological magnification?

Back 143

pollutants/toxins store in the fats of animals at lower trophic levels and the amount of toxins accumulate up the trophic levels, and the top predators are most threatened

Front 144

What is cultural eutrophication?

Back 144

nitrates from agriculture runoff go into bodies of water and cause excessive growth of aquatic plants (mostly algae)
leads to oxygen depletion due to the decay --> massive die off of oxygen dependent organisms

Front 145

How is acid rain formed?

Back 145

production of nitrous oxide and sulfer dioxide convert to sulfuric acid and nitric acid and acidify soil and water

Front 146

How are birds affected by acid rain?

Back 146

the acid rain deplete calcium from the soils which killed off snails. birds rely on snails for calcium and as a consequence their egg shells became thinner

Front 147

How should we respond to ecosystem stress from pollution?

Back 147

gov. should control pollution
polluters who treat it as externality should pay some price
adopt lifestyles that produce less pollution and waste

Front 148

Which greenhouse gas constitutes 76% of all the greenhouse gases?

Back 148

Carbon dioxide- caused by fossil fuel burning and forest burning

Front 149

What is the problem with methane in comparison to carbon dioxide?

Back 149

only constitutes 13% of total greenhouse gas, but is 30x better more effective at trapping heat

Front 150

Is the warming of the earth uniform?

Back 150

No some places are more effected than others

Front 151

Which climates are most effected by climate change?

Back 151

arid lands
arctic ecosystems
high altitude ecosystems
wetlands
low lying coastal regions
coral reefs

Front 152

What are two reasons some organisms won't be able to adapt to climate change?

Back 152

Have no suitable habitat left
unable to reach places with suitable habitat

Front 153

What are the four ways species can respond to climate change

Back 153

acclimatize- change morphology, behaviorally or physiologically, during their lifetimes

adapt- evolve new traits
disperse- shift habitats
extinction

Front 154

What are some potential effects of climate change?

Back 154

latitude/elevation shifts
shifts in timing of yearly events
decoupling of species relationships
spread of invasives/disease
change in sex ratios of environmental temp. determination

Front 155

Are extinctions possible from climate change?

Back 155

yes some species will run out of suitable habitat that they can't shift to

Front 156

Is there evidence of organisms shifting timed events with the climate change

Back 156

Some species can but there is evidence that some species cant (short distance vs long distance migrants) and this can cause competition and disadvantages

Front 157

How does climate change effect species invasions?

Back 157

with delayed winters, species can expand faster and longer causing adverse reactions in an ecosystem

Front 158

What is the difference between mitigation and adaption?

Back 158

Mitigation reduces the release of greenhouse gases by reducing fossil fuel burning , change to non polluting energy resources, and global reforestation

the other is adaptation to the changing climate which is unpredictable and could have terrible consequences

Front 159

How can we help species with climate change?

Back 159

assess vulnerability of species and habitats

design reserves for species that need to shift

establish habitat corridors for dispersal

assisted dispersal of some species northward

dynamic conservation plans

reduce effect of stressors

minimize catastrophic fires

maintain genetically diverse populations

Front 160

What are utilitarian values?

Back 160

values that make a species worthwhile as a means to help human beings achieve their ends

Front 161

What are intrinsic values?

Back 161

makes a species worthwhile in its own right as an end itself

Front 162

What are the 4 utilitarian values?

Back 162

goods
services
information
inspiration

Front 163

Describe species that are goods

Back 163

only a small portion
value is quantified and monetized

Front 164

Describe species that provide services

Back 164

includes more species
services include decomposition, nitrogen fixation, pollination

Front 165

Describe species that provide information

Back 165

biotechnology depends on genetic information stored in wild species

Front 166

Describe species that provide inspiration

Back 166

attraction to wild species- biophilia hypothesis
usually charismatic mega vertebrates

Front 167

What are commodity values

Back 167

people are willing to pay when there is a market for a species

Front 168

what are option values?

Back 168

what people are willing to pay to guarantee option of finding future use for a species

Front 169

what are contingent values?

Back 169

what people would be willing to pay for the opportunity to use a species

Front 170

what are existence values?

Back 170

what people are willing to pay to keep a species from going extinct even if they never see or use the it

Front 171

what are bequest values?

Back 171

what people are willing to pay to assure future generations have opportunity to use a species

Front 172

What is the advantage and disadvantages of using utilitarian values for conservation?

Back 172

able to win some arguments but can cause a cost benefit dilemma

Front 173

What is the advantage of using intrinsic values as an argument?

Back 173

shifts the burden to developers

Front 174

What is the 'safe minimum standard'?

Back 174

assumes that biological diversity is of incalcuable value and should always be conserved

Front 175

What is anthropocentric ethic?

Back 175

species are resources that exist to benefit humans

Front 176

What is stewardship ethic?

Back 176

human beings are responsible caretakers of wild species

Front 177

What is biocentric ethic?

Back 177

individual human beings should respect rights of individuals of other species

Front 178

What is eccocentric ethic?

Back 178

the human species is coequal with other species which should not be threatened by human actions