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121 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
- 3rd side (hint)
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Where is the division between the UPPER and LOWER RESPIRATORY SYSTEMS (or tracts)?
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near the larynx
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Where does the oxygen exchange occur between the inspired gas and the blood that flows through the lungs?
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ALVEOLI in the lungs
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What surrounds the TRACHEA? Why are they important?
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1. cartilage--maintains shape and structure
2. smooth muscle--allows it to dilate or contract upon need |
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What causes the "wheezy" sound in asthma patients?
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the velocity of the air going through a small diameter (of the trachea--the smooth muscle is contracted, so the airway is narrower)
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How thick is an ALVEOLUS? Why is this beneficial?
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1 cell layer thick; it allows for better diffusion of gaseous nutrients
(*The total barrier is 2 cells thick--one from the alveolus and one from the capillary.) |
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What are some RESPIRATORY DEFENSE MECHANISMS?
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1. alveolar macrophages (white blood cells that leave the capillaries and enter a tissue)
2. ciliated cells in the trachea that move mucus toward oral cavity 3. mucus |
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What are possible destinations of a MACROPHAGE, which has consumed a pollutant?
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1. migrate to oral cavity
2. enter blood stream and be disposed of elsewhere in another system |
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What does an ALVEOLAR LAVAGE measure?
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The amount of ALVEOLAR MACROPHAGES by using a saline solution and a syringe-type pump to pump them out of the lungs.
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What is VENTILATION?
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moving outside air through the mouth/nose, into the lungs, and back out again
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What is the breathing rate at rest? during heavy exercise? What may result during heavy exercise at the alveolus-capillary interface?
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5 L/min; 200 L/min; the alveolus-capillary interface can become leaky due to high pressures and RBC can enter the respiratory tract (very rare in humans)
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What is/are the main INSPIRING MUSCLE(S) when at rest? Expiring muscle(s)?
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inspiring: contraction of the DIAPHRAGM
expiring is passive when the diaphragm relaxes (no muscles needed) |
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Which MUSCLE(S) need to be recruited during exercise?
(for active inspiration and expiration) |
inspiration:
1. sternocleidomastoid 2. scalenes 3. external intercostals 4. internal intercostals 5. diaphragm expiration: 1. internal intercostals 2. external abdominal obliques 3. internal abdominal obliques 4. transversus abdominis 5. rectus abdominis |
5:5
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Briefly explain the relationship between energy expenditure and breathing activity with exercise and why.
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The cost of breathing goes up as ventilation goes up because we are recruiting more muscles.
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Briefly explain the branching of airways as air enters through the oral or nasal cavities.
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1. larynx
2. trachea 3. primary bronchi 4. secondary bronchi 5. bronchi divided approx. 22 more times 6. bronchiole 7. alveoli |
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How is VENTILATION affected?
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1. change airway resistance
2. change alveolar compliance |
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How is AIRWAY RESISTANCE changed?
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by changing the diameter of the bronchi (or bronchiole, etc.); this is done by:
1. mucous blockage (b/c too much built up) 2. bronchoconstriction (smooth muscle) 3. bronchodilation (smooth muscle) |
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How is ALVEOLAR COMPLIANCE changed?
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by changing alveolar properties, such as:
1. surfactants (not enough = stick together due to surface tension) 2. surface tension (too high = stick together) 3. alveolar elasticity (scar tissue, etc. may limit ability to expand/contract) |
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FYI: What could be a pulmonary effect of a premature baby?
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It may lack SURFACTANTS, which are produced by cortisol in the latter end of the 3rd trimester.
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A lung substance that coats alveoli in order to reduce the surface tension of water. Why is this beneficial?
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LUNG SURFACTANT; it:
1. prevents ATELECTASIS upon exhalation 2. decreases the force necessary to expand the alveoli upon inhalation. |
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collapsing of a lung upon exhalation
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ATELECTASIS
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Which ALVEOLI STRUCTURES are used for:
1. gas exchange 2. syinthesizing surfactant 3. ingesting foreign material |
1. Type I cells
2. Type II cells (or surfactant cells) 3. macrophages |
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What is DIFFUSTION limited by?
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1. how far the substance needs to go
2. how high the concentration gradient is |
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condition where water fills the space (alveolar air space) between the capillary endothelium and the alveolar basement membrane
--Why is this bad? |
PULMONARY EDEMA; this limits oxygen exchange
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The airway is composed of different parts. What are they? Of what are they composed?
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1. conducting system
-trachea -primary bronchi -smaller bronchi 2. exchange surface -alveoli |
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What does the CONDUCTING SYSTEM do?
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Delivers the air from the mouth/nose to the terminal bronchi; it warms and moistens the air.
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What makes ALVEOLI an efficient component of the EXCHANGE SURFACE of the lungs?
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It's huge SURFACE AREA.
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Briefly explain the PROCESS OF (normal, passive) BREATHING. How does it relate to BELLY BREATHING during exercise?
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1. diaphragm contracts
2. the pressure outside and inside are equal, so no air movement occurs 3. when diaphragm contracts, the pulmonary cavity volume increases, so the pressure inside falls, and air flows in 4. when diaphragm relaxes, the pulmonary cavity volume decreases, so the pressure inside rises, and air flows out --Belly breathing works the same way without contracting the diaphragm. With contraction of abdominal and other muscles, the abdominal cavity pressure decrease, which displaces the diaphragm without it contracting. This increases the pulmonary cavity volume and allows air to enter. |
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What is the pressure in the PLEURAL SPACE (the space between the lungs and the chest wall)?
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negative; it's a suction to keep the lungs expanded and the chest wall from expanding too much.
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What happens is the PLEURAL SPACE is "popped"?
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result = pneumothorax
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the term for the lung collapsing due to the disrupting of the pleural space
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PNEUMOTHORAX
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What is the normal pulmonary values of:
1. tidal volume 2. pulmonary ventilation (Ve) |
1. tidal volume = 500 ml; frequency = 14 bpm
2. pulmonary ventilation (Ve) = 7 L/min; max exercise = 100-200 L/min |
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the volume of gas inspired or expired during an unforced respiratory cycle
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RESTING TIDAL VOLUME (Vt = 500 ml)
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the volume of gas that can be inspired at the end of a tidal inspiration
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INSPIRATORY RESERVE VOLUME (IRV)
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the volume of gas that can expired at the end of a tidal expiration
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EXPRIRATORY RESERVE VOLUME (ERV)
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the volume of gas left in the lungs after a maximal expiration
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RESIDUAL VOLUME
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the total amount of gas in the lungs at the end of a maximal inspiration
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TOTAL LUNG CAPACITY
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the maximum amount of gas that can be expired after a maximum inspiration
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VITAL CAPACITY
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the maximum amount of gas that can be inspired at the end of a tidal expiration
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INSPIRATORY CAPACITY
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the amount of gas remaining in the lungs after a normal quiet tidal expiration
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FUNCTIONAL RESIDUAL CAPACITY
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the amount of air moved in or out of the lungs per minute
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PULMONARY VENTILATION (V)
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What is the PULMONARY VENTILATION equation?
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the product of tidal volume (Vt) and breathing frequency (f)
V = Vt x f |
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What is DALTON'S LAW?
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Partial Pressure: individual gases in a mixture exert pressure proportional to their abundance
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What is HENRY'S LAW?
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Diffusion between liquid and gases: the amount of gas in solution is directly proportional to their partial pressure
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Briefly explain how HENRY'S LAW relates to solubility and pressure.
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1. When gas pressure in a closed volume at equilibrium with a liquid, more gas molecules are in the gas compared to the liquid
2. When the volume decreases, and the pressure increases, the ratio of molecules in the gas:liquid remain the same initially, but slowly go into equilibrium by the gas diffusing the molecules into the liquid. 3. When the volume increased, and the pressure decreases, the ratio of molecules in the gas:liquid remain the same initially, but slowly go into equilibrium by the liquid releasing molecules into the gas. |
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Define PARTIAL PRESSURE
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the total pressure of a gas mixture is equal to the sum of the pressure that each gas would exert independently
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How is the PARTIAL PRESSURE of O2 (PO2) in air found using Dalton's Law?
**Notice how PO2 is dependent upon elevation. |
percent of O2 in the air (20.93%, or 0.2093) multiplied by the total pressure of air (SI = 760 mmHg)
PO2 = 0.2093 x 760 = 159 mmHg **With increased elevation, comes a decrease in total air pressure. If this is lower, the PO2 is lower. |
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The content of gas in plasma depends on what?
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1. partial pressure of that gas
2. the solubility in the solvent (i.e., water) |
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Compare the SOLUBILITY of O2 and CO2 in water.
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O2 in water: 0.1 mmoles/L (poor)
CO2 in water: 3.0 mmoles/L (good) |
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How does FICK'S LAW relate to gas DIFFUSION? What is the associated equation?
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The rate of gas transfer (V gas) is PROPORTIONAL to:
1. the tissue area 2. the diffusion coefficient of the gas 3. the difference in the partial pressure of the gas on the two sides of the tissue and INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL to: the thickness Vgas = (A/T) x D x (P1 - P2) Vgas = rate of diffusion A = tissue area T = tissue thickness D = diffusion coefficient of gas P1-P2 = difference in partial pressure |
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Gas exchange across the respiratory membrane is efficient due to what?
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1. differences in partial pressure
2. small diffusion distance 3. lipid-soluble distance 4. large surface area of all alveoli 5. coordination of blood flow and airflow |
5 of them
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How is O2 transported from the air to the tissues?
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1. the PO2 of air is greater than that in the lungs, so it flows into them [150 + mmHg]
2. The pressure in the lungs (aveolar PO2 = 105 mmHg) is greater than that in the arteries (100 mmHg), so it diffuses into the arteries 3. The PO2 in the arteries is much higher in the arteries than in the tissues (40 mmHg), so it diffuses into them--specifically to the mitochondria |
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Why would supplemental oxygen be needed at high altitudes?
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the alveolar pressure is too similar to the surrounding partial pressure of oxygen that not much diffuses
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How and how much OXYGEN is TRANSPORTED in BLOOD?
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1. dissolved in plasma (approx. 2%)
2. bound to hemoglobin (approx. 98%) |
2 ways
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What is HENRY'S LAW and what equation is associated with it?
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Henry's Law states that when a liquid and a gas are in equilibrium (at constant temperature), the amount of gas in solution is directly proportional to the partial pressure of the gas.
[gas] = s_gas x P_gas s_gas = O2 solubility in plasma at body temperature, which is 0.03 mlO2/liter plasma/mmHg PO2. [gas] = concentration of gas, expresses as "vol %" (0.3 vol %) or "ml O2 per 100 ml plasma" (0.3 ml O2 per 100 ml plasma), or "ml O2 per liter plasma" (3 ml O2/liter plasma) |
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How much oxygen does the body normally need to cover resting metabolic rate?
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5.0 vol %, or 5 ml O2 per 100 ml plasma
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What is/are possible problem(s) with dissolved gases?
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decompression sickness
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What is/are possible benefit(s) with dissolved gases?
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hyperbaric oxygen treatment
*100% oxygen at 2 or 3 atmospheres forces enough oxygen to dissolve in the plasma to meet metabolic needs e.g.: 100% oxygen at 2 atm = 4.4 vol % 100% oxygen at 3 atm = 6.5 vol % |
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How is O2 transported in muscle (which molecule)? How does this work?
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MYOGLOBIN (Mb) shuttles O2 from the cell membrane to the mitochondria
*This works because Mb has a higher affinity for O2 than Hb--even at low PO2; it also stores O2 in muscle. |
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How is CO2 transported in the blood?
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1. dissolved in plasma (10%)
2. bound to Hb (20%) 3. bicarbonate (70%) CO2 + H2O <--> H2CO3 <--> H+ + HCO3- |
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What is the enzyme that turns CO2 and H2O into carbonic acid (H2CO3) or bicarbonate (HCO3-)?
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CARBONIC ANHYDRASE
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Briefly explain CARBON DIOXIDE TRANSPORT.
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1. the tissue cells produce CO2
2. CO2 travels through interstitial fluid and crosses the capillary wall into the blood plasma 3. CO2 enters a RBC and can: A) bind with H2O to form carbonic acid, or B) bind to Hb with a free H+ on it 4. When carbonic acid is formed, it brakes down to H+, which goes to the Hb and to bicarbonate 5. the HCO3- travels through the capillary to the lungs 6. at the lungs, HCO3- binds to H+ to form carbonic acid. 7. H2O leaves the carbonic acid and leaves CO2 8. CO2 leaves the RBC, crosses the barriers, and enters the ALVEOLAR SPACE in the lung |
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What are possible factors of oxygen uptake and delivery?
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1. oxygen content of blood
2. amount of blood flow 3. local conditions within the muscle (pH, PCO2, temperature) |
3 things
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How is the RESPIRATORY SYSTEM regulated? (involuntarily and voluntarily)
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Involuntarily:
1. input from higher centers (i.e., motor cortex) influence ventilation--this is called CENTRAL COMMAND 2. the RESPIRATORY CENTERS in the BRAIN STEM (i.e., pons and medulla oblongata, which have an inspiratory center and an expiratory center) Voluntarily: 1. cerebral cortex |
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What do the RESPIRATORY CENTERS in the BRAIN STEM do?
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set the rate and depth of breathing
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How is the RESPIRATORY CONTROL CENTER regulated?
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1. received NEURAL and HUMORAL input
2. regulates RESPIRATORY RATE |
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How does NEURAL and HUMORAL INPUT help regulate pulmonary ventilation?
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1. feedback from muscles
2. CO2 levels in the blood |
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Which area of the PONS of the brain stem directly communicates with inspiratory neurons located in the rhythmicity area to stop inspiratory neuronal acitivity?
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the APNEUSTIC AREA
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Which area of the PONS of the brain stem fine-tunes the activity of the apneustic area and work in concert to regulate the depth of breathing?
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the PNEUMOTAXIC AREA
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What are the REGULATORS of PULMONARY VENTILATION that communicate with the medulla oblongata's INSPIRATORY CENTERS?
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chemoreceptors (peripheral and central)
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Where are PERIPHERAL CHEMORECEPTORS located and what do they monitor?
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located:
1. aortic arch (aortic bodies) 2. bifurcation of the common carotid artery (carotid bodies) monitor: 1. PO2 2. PCO2 3. pH |
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Where are CENTRAL CHEMORECEPTORS located and what do they monitor?
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-in the medulla
1. PCO2 2. pH |
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CHEMORECEPTORS respond to increases in _______ and _______ concentrations or to decreases in _________ by INCREASING RESPIRATION.
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increases in:
1. CO2 2. H+ decreases in: 1. blood oxygen levels |
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What is the effect of ARTERIAL PCO2 on ventilation?
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As arterial PCO2 increases, ventilation increases linearly. This happens so that more CO2 leaves the body to prevent acidosis.
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What is the effect of ARTERIAL PO2 on ventilation?
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As arterial PO2 increases, ventilation gradually decreases. This happens because the body doesn't sense that it needs more.
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What are the REGULATORS OF PULMONARY VENTILATION?
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1. respiratory control center
2. chemical changes within the body via central chemoreceptors 3. chemical changes within the body via peripheral chemoreceptors 4. skeletal muscle input via mechanoreceptors and chemoreceptors |
4 of them
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Ventilation increases upon exercise due to inspiratory stimulation from _______. CHEMICAL changes in muscle, sensed by ___________ can also increase ventiltion.
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MUSCLE ACTIVITY; type III and type IV afferents
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What is the ventilatory response to mild, steady-state exercise?
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Ventilation tends to match the rate of energy metabolism during mild, steady-state activity.
--Both vary in proportion to the volume of oxygen consumed (VO2) and the volume of carbon dioxide produced (VCO2) by the body. |
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T/F. Breathing frequency increases in a somewhat linear manner with prolonged exercise.
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FALSE. Breathing frequency increases in a somewhat linear manner with EXERCISE INTENSITY.
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How does TIDAL VOLUME respond during mild to moderate exercise and also at higher work intensities?
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Tidal volume INCREASES during mild to moderate exercise but tends to PLATEAU at higher work intensities.
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How does BREATHING FREQUENCY and TIDAL VOLUME relate to exercise?
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breathing frequency = breathes per minute; tidal volume = volume per breath:
b/min x vol/b = vol/min, or VO2 |
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How does VO2 relate to ventilation?
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With increased VO2, ventilation increases
-aka: the more O2 the muscles consume and utilized, the more the O2 the lungs will bring in |
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Briefly explain the transitions of ventilation and PO2 and PCO2 from REST-TO-WORK.
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initially, ventilation increases rapidly when going from rest to work; then, it gradually rises toward steady-state
-- PO2 and PCO2 are maintained when going from rest to work. Thus, PO2 and PCO2 are not the main driving factors of ventilation. |
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What happens in PHASE I in the classic description of the ventilatory response to exercise?
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initiation of muscle contraction due to muscle reflexes (most likely muscle afferents)
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What happens in PHASE II in the classic description of the ventilatory response to exercise?
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It starts after about 20-30 sec of exercise and is due to changes in PCO2 (central chemoreceptors)
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What happens in PHASE III in the classic description of the ventilatory response to exercise?
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steady state ventilation, which is proportional to oxygen demand and CO2 production (PO2, PCO2, and pH are normal)
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How does ventilation respond to INCREMENTAL EXERCISE?
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it increases linearly--up to 50-75% VO2max (after that, it increases exponentially--known as the VENTILATORY THRESHOLD)
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What is the VENTILATORY THRESHOLD (Tvent)?
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the inflexion point where Ve increases exponentially
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What is the VENTILATORY BREAKPOINT?
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the point during intense exercise at which ventilation increases disproportionately to the oxygen consumption
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When work rate exceeds 55% to 70% VO2max, energy must be derived from ________. Increased dependency on this metabolic pathway leads to ____________ and _______________.
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GLYCOLYSIS; lactate production; H+ accumulation
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Increases lactate production and H+ accumulation triggers a respiratory response. How does this affect ventilation?
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it increases ventilation (ventilatory breakpoint)
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What is the ANAEROBIC THRESHOLD?
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the point during intense exercise at which carbon flux through glycolytic pathway is rapid (anaerobic)
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What reflects the lactate threshold under most conditions, though the relationship is not always exact?
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ANAEROBIC THRESHOLD
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The ANAEROBIC THRESHOLD is identified from PULMONARY VENTILATION by what?
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noting an increase in the ventilatory equivalent for VO2 without a concomitant increase in the ventilatory equivalent for VCO2
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How is VENTILATION controlled during SUBMAXIMAL exercise and HEAVY exercise?
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-submaximal: linear increase in ventilation due to:
1. central command 2. chemoreceptor activation 3. neural feedback (skeletal muscles) -heavy: exponential rise above ventilation threshold due to: 1. increasing blood H+ (central chemoreceptors) |
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T/F. Training reduced exercise ventilation. Explain.
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TRUE; in the trained runner:
1. there's a greater decrease in arterial PO2 near exhaustion 2. pH is maintained at a higher work rate 3. Tvent occurs at a higher work rate |
3 things
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What are the CAUSES of EXERCISE-INDUCED HYPOXEMIA?
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1. ventilation-perfusion mismatch
2. diffusion limitations due to reduced time of RBC in pulmonary capillaries due to high cardiac outputs |
2 of them
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What is associated with the drive of the VENTILATION BREAKPOINT?
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decrease in pH
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What can be used to estimate lactate threshold?
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VENTILATION BREAKPOINT
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T/F. Pulmonary ventilation is a limiting factor in exercise.
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FALSE; Pulmonary ventilation is not a limiting factor in exercise.
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What is the response of PULMONARY VENTILATION with training?
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it decreases
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Do the lungs limit exercise performance in LOW-TO-MODERATE intensity exercise?
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pulmonary system not seen as a limitation
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Do the lungs limit exercise performance in MAXIMUM intensity exercise?
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--not thought to be a limitation in healthy individuals at sea level
--may be limiting in elite endurance athletes --new evidence that respiratory muscle fatigue does occur during high intensity exercise |
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Failure to maintain acid-base balance may impair performance. How is acid-base balance maintained?
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buffers
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How does impaired acid-base balance impair performance?
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1. inhibits ATP production
2. interferes with muscle contraction |
2 things
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How do BUFFERS work in maintaining acid-base balance?
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1. release H+ when pH is high
2. accept H+ when pH is low |
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What are the main INTRACELLULAR BUFFERS of (skeletal muscle) cells? List in order.
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1. proteins
2. phosphate groups 3. bicarbonate |
3 of them
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What are the main EXTRACELLULAR BUFFERS of the body? List in order.
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1. bicarbonate
2. hemoglobin 3. blood proteins |
3 oft hem
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How does the BICARBONATE BUFFERING SYSTEM work?
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CO2 + H2O <--> H2CO3 <--> H+ + HCO3-
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Which organs help regulate physiological acid-base balance?
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1. lungs
2. kidneys |
2 ways
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How is the physiological acid-base balance regulated via the LUNGS?
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The lungs increase the PCO2, which:
1. results in low pH 2. increases ventilation 3. CO2 is "blown off" |
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How is the physiological acid-base balance regulated via the KIDNEYS?
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--The kidneys regulate the BLOOD BICARBONATE CONCENTRATION.
--Important in long-term acid-base balance, but is too slow to be of benefit during exercise. |
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What is the body's FIRST LINE OF DEFENSE against acid-base imbalance during exercise?
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1. CELLULAR BUFFERS:
a. proteins b. phosphate groups c. bicarbonate 2. BLOOD BUFFERS a. bicarbonate b. hemoglobin c. proteins |
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What is the body's SECOND LINE OF DEFENSE against acid-base imbalance during exercise?
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RESPIRATORY COMPENSATION
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What is the relationship between ARTERIAL BLOOD pH and MUSCLE pH during exercise? What about the relationship among blood LACTIC ACID, HCO3-, and pH during exercise?
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--Muscle pH decreases more rapidly than arterial blood pH
--blood lactic acid increases at a similar rate that HCO3- decreases; however, overall, the pH drops |
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What improves skeletal muscles' buffering capacity?
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sprint training
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How is LACTIC ACID buffered during exercise?
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1. lactic acid is buffered by bicarbonate
2. lactic acid is buffered by respiratory compensation |
2 things
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How does BICARBONATE buffer LACTIC ACID during exercise?
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Increases in lactic acid are accompanied by decreases in bicarbonate and blood pH.
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How does RESPIRATORY COMPENSATION buffer LACTIC ACID during exercise?
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It "blows off" excess CO2 via bicarbonate transport utilization
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What are the main sources of H+ ions due to metabolic processes? Which is of concern during exercise?
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1. lactic acid = exercise
2. carbonic acid 3. acidic ketone bodies 4. phosphoric acid 5. sulfuric acid |
5 of them
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How does BLOOD pH respond to increased exercise intensity?
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it DECLINES
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How does MUSCLE pH respond to increased exercise intensity?
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it DECLINES--even more rapidly than blood pH due to lower buffering capacity
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