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18 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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How would you respond to critics of artificiality in experiments?
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Within experiments, artificiality is a researchers best friend and most valued tool. It is the greatest advantage of experimental methods.
Experiments' artificiality allows the researcher to only look at theoretically relevant phenomena. It also allows the researcher to study situations that would be difficult or impossible to find in a "natural" setting. Experiments also facilitate replication of studies and allows for a clear examination of cause and effect. |
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When are experiments best utilized in research?
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Experiments are not suited to ALL research questions. They are best used when THEORY TESTING. These theories can then be applied to explain "natural settings."
They are first used to test scientifically driven theoretical (abstract) concepts. |
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List and explain the two kinds of laboratory experiments in the social sciences.
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1. Empiricist experiments have the object of discovering regular patterns of behavior. it is unable to find causal laws and therefore not able to lead to cumulative theoretical science. (ex: Asch studies; look at relationship btwn two phenomena)
2. Theory driven experiments are designed in order to test theories. They are not designed to discover or establish regularities. (ex: SCT; study mechanisms that drives the relationship btwn phenomena) |
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What are three features of experimental design that make it unique in scientific inquiry?
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1. Random assignment
--Everyone has the same probability of being placed in each condition (probability theory: error sums to zero if distributed randomly) 2. Manipulation --IV is manipulated so treatment group is exposed to IV while the control group is not 3. Controlled measurement --controlled by measuring the DV in a consistent environment |
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List and define the two types of validity.
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1. Internal validity
--extent to which a method can establish a cause-effect relationship; are you measuring what you think you're measuring? --reliability 2. External validity --the degree that experimental findings hold for other persons, in other locations, at other times --generalization |
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List and define the three main principles of the Belmont Report.
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1) individuals are autonomous agents (protects special populations)
2) maximize possible benefits and avoid or minimize potential harms (human dignity) 3) justice concerning who should receive the benefits of the search and bear its burdens (selection of participants). |
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What are the four general issues as outlined by Hegtvedt concerning ethics?
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1. Objectification
--seeing your research participants as 'subjects' because you are cut off from them 2. Potential harms --can be assessed by considering the nature, degree and likelihood of the harm 3. Exploitative practices --researchers need to be aware of their actions and how they are perceived due to the power differential 4. Confidentiality --important in order to reduce potential harms |
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What are the two specific issues as outlined by Hegtvedt concerning ethics?
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1. Deception
--need informed consent --can undermine participants' autonomy --bigger picture [see "Deception Debate"] 2. Subject pools --pools such as students --produces conflict between developing knowledge and ethical treatment of study participants --need to be VOLUNTARY |
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List and explain two kinds of experimenter effects.
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1. Observer/interpreter effects
--Judgments made by experimenters 2. Expectancy effects --Refers to subject’s interpretations and behaviors. --Some participants behave in ways to either please, or disrupt the experiment. --Expectancy effects may also occur based on experimenters expectations being subtly conveyed to subjects. |
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According to Lucas (2003), what are the four ways that external validity can be assessed?
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1. Construct Validity: The extent to which empirical measures accurately reflect the theoretical constructs
--“Do the measures of the study accurately reflect theoretical constructs?” 2. Relevance: Whether the research setting conforms to the scope of the theory under test --“Does the test meet the scope conditions of the theory?” 3. Reproducibility: Our confidence that the findings will repeat under identity conditions --“Are we confident that the findings would hold if the study were repeated?” 4. Consistency: Whether the findings support the theory being tested --“Do findings support the theory under test?” 5. Confirmatory Status: The confirmatory status of the theory under tests --“Has the theory escaped falsification in diverse settings?” ==> EV is a theoretical issue. |
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List and describe the three components of empirical guidelines necessary for something to be considered science?
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1. Intersubjectivity: idea that scientists can be "free of bias" is unattainable. Intersubjectivity is an admission that we are all biased but that by "pooling" our biases the KNOWLEDGE generated can be objective
2. Falsification: means that you can test and demonstrate that something is false; important concept relies on the asymmetry between the meaning of true and false (true means always the case; false means not always the case); [POPPER] 3. Replication: means that the empirical test is repeatable in principle; science does not deal with unique events, but rather classes of events |
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What is the difference between deduction and induction?
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Deduction: general to specific
--they are nonampliative; there is nothing in the conclusion that is not in the premises **intersubjectivity, falsification and replication are guarantees of deduction** Induction: specific to general --ampliative; amplify beyond the information presented in the premises |
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What is an exact class concept and why is it useful?
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An exact class concept NEVER changes its meaning because that meaning is independent of time and space. It is useful for constructing theory (abstract).
You cannot construct at theory based on concepts that change their meaning. |
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What is the law of excluded middle? Why is it important?
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The law of excluded middle is important for exact class language when constructing theories. Exact class language is abstract. The law of excluded middle states that something either IS or IS NOT.
Either that proposition is true, or its negation is. Ordinary language is pliable and does not obey the law of excluded middle. Meanings change from time to time (not exact class). |
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List three kinds of induction and explain them.
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1. Enumeration: generalizing from occurrences; "this happened, then this..."
2. Projection: uses past cases to make inferences about the next case 3. Abductive/Explanatory: inference to the best explanation; "this theory is supported" <--Uniformity Principle |
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What is modus tollens?
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A simple, valid (truth preserving) argument form:
if p, then q not q therefore, not p MT is important b/c it is simple and fits into an already developed set of logical tools used within science. We know if we can find the conclusion is false, then we have sure knowledge that something is wrong with the premises. |
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What is the reverse of modus tollens and why is it a non-valid argument form?
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if p, then q
q therefore p Can's say this because it's stating that if the conclusion is true, premises are true. False premises CAN lead to a true conclusion. 0 = 3 3 = 0 --> 0 = 0 *You can never say something is true, you can only know if something is false.* |
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Draw and explain the Watson Selection Task and how it is an example of modus tollens.
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Four cards, with half of each card masked.
You are asked: “Which masks do you have to remove to know whether it is true that if there is a circle on the left of a card, there is a circle on the right as well? Card D: white is “not Q”; if there’s a circle, then it’s falsified; if p then q; not q not p • Modus tollens • You only know if it’s false; can’t know if it’s true An important point about Popper's model is that confirmation is a myth because it relies on induction. |
