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71 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Enthalpy
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high potential energy a quantitative measure of the amount of potential energy, or heat content, of a system plus the pressure and volume it exerts on its surroundings |
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Entropy
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insolated system disorganization increases -products may have less energy than reactants a quantitative measure of the amount of disorder of any system, such as a group of molecules |
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First Law
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Energy is conserved. Energy cannot be created or destroyed, can only be transferred and transformed
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Second Law
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Entropy always increases in isolated systems |
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What is ATP composed of?
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Triphosphate group Ribose Adenine |
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What is the function of ATP?
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cellular currency for energy and it provides the fuel for most cellular activities -has high potential energy -allows cells to do work |
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ATP works by
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Phosphorylating target molecules -transferring a phosphate group |
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Electrons in ATP
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have high potential energy 4 negative charges in its 3 phosphate groups repel each other |
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Hydrolysis
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splitting of water
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Phosphorylation
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add phosphate to enzyme changes structure and function -or activate it sometimes |
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Energetic Coupling
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when a protein is phosphorylated, the exergonic phosphorylation reaction is paired with an endergonic reaction
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Metabolic Pathway
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a series of reactions each catalyzed by a different enzyme to build biological molecules |
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When does Feedback inhibition occur?
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when an enzyme in a pathway is inhibited by the product of that pathway -pathway can shut down when products are no longer needed by the cell |
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Competitive Inhibition
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molecules compete for slot on enzyme
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Norman Horowitz (1945)
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Enzymes evolved to make building blocks of life If substrates decline, new enzymes make more of the substrates |
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Retro-evolution
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repetition of backward process produces multi-step metabolic pathway |
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Alpha Linkages
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used for storage of energy because it's easy to break apart
-easy access to energy |
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When do simple sugars polymerize? |
a condensation reaction occurs between two hydroxyl groups resulting in a covalent bond called a glycosidic linkage |
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When can glycosidic linkages form? |
between any two hydroxyl group |
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What two linkages are between the C-1 and C-4 carbons? |
a-1,4-glycosidic linkage (alpha) and B-1,4-glycosidic linkage (beta) |
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What is different between alpha and beta linkages? |
orientations of the C-1 hydroxls |
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Beta Linkages |
used as a structure component for animals, bacteria, bugs -hydrogen bonds are harder to break |
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What are 5 types of polysaccharide? |
Starch, Glycogen, Cellulose, Chitin, Peptidoglycan |
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Starch |
used for energy storage in plant cells (such as in potatoes) -alpha linkages -adjacent linkages |
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Glycogen |
Used for energy storage in animal cells (such as in liver and muscles) -alpha linkages -a-1,6-glycosidic linkages -adjacent linkages |
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Cellulose |
used for structural support in cell walls of plants and many algae -beta linkages -joined by B-1,4 glycosidic linkages -adjacent linkages are flipped |
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Why is flipped orientation important? |
1. it generates a linear molecule, rather than the helix seen in starch 2. it permits multiple hydrogen bonds to form between adjacent, parallel strands of cellulose -joined by hydrogen bonds |
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Chitin |
used for structural support in the cell walls of fungi and the external skeletons of insects and crustaceans -ex: fungi -exoskeleton -NAG --joined by B-1,4-glycosidic linkages -beta linkages |
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Peptidoglycan |
used for structural support in bacterial cell walls -B-1,4-glycosidic linkages -short chain of amino acids attached to one of the two sugar types |
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Glycoproteins |
for cell recognition and used for identification |
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1. Hexokinase |
Transfers a phosphate from ATP to glucose, increasing its potential energy |
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2. Phosphoglucose isomerase |
conversts glucose-6-phosphate to fructose-6-phosphate |
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3. Phosphofructokinase |
transfers a phosphate from ATP to the opposite end of fructose-6-phosphate, increasing its potential energy |
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4. Fructose-bis-phosphate aldolase |
cleaves fructose-1,6-bisphosphate into two different 3-carbon sugars |
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5. Triose phosphate isomerase |
converts dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DAP) to glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P) |
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6. Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase |
a two-step reaction that first oxidizes G3P using the NAD+ coenzyme to produce NADH |
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7. Phosphoglycerate kinase |
transfers a phosphate from 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate to ADP to make 3-phosphoglycerate and ATP |
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8. Phospoglycerate mutase |
rearranges the phosphate in 3-phosphoglycerate to make 2-phosphoglycerate. |
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9. Enolase |
removes a water molecule from 2-phosphoglycerate to form C=C double bond and produce phosphoenolpyruvate |
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10. Pyruvate kinase |
transfers a phosphate from phosphoenolpyruvate to ADP to make pyruvate and ATP |
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Which enzymes catalyze anabolic reactions during glycolysis? |
Hexokinase Phosphofructokinase Phosphoglycerate kinase Pyruvate kinase |
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Which two enzymes catalyze isomerization reactions during glycolysis? |
Phosphoglucose isomerase Triose phosphate isomerase |
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Enzymes Hexokinase and Phosphofructokinase use ATP as a substrate; however, it has been shown that the rate at which they catalyze their reactions decreases when cellular ATP levels are high. How could this be the case? |
increases of allosteric inhibition ATP can act as a regulatory molecule for large amounts |
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For each glucose molecule catabolized, what are the total or gross products at the end of glycolysis? |
2NADH + 4ATP +2 pyruvate |
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Which enzyme catalyzes the reaction that gives glycolysis its name? |
Fructose-bis-phosphate aldolase |
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Where does the process of electron transport chain occur? |
inner membrane of the mitochondrion |
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In the Electron Transport Chain, what is Q and what is its role? |
coenzyme and act as a shuttle that transfers electrons |
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In the Electron Transport Chain, what is Cyt c and what is its role? |
protein and acts as a shuttle that transfers electrons |
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What goes in during electron transport chain? |
NADH, FADH2, 2H+, 1/2O2 |
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What comes out during electron transport chain? |
NAD+, FAD, H2O |
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What are the 4 steps of cellular respiration? |
1. Glycolysis 2. Pyruvate Processing 3. Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle) 4. Electron Transport (chemiosis) |
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What is the formula for Cellular Respiration? |
C6H12O6 + 6O2 -> 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy |
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Catabolic |
breaks down a molecule |
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Anabolic |
builds up |
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What enzymes are anabolic? |
kinase hexokinase |
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What enzyme catalyzes isomer reactions? |
isomerase? |
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Isomer |
same formula, different function |
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Fructo-bisphophate Adolase |
gives glycolysis name -enzyme that splits glucose into 2 different carbon molecules |
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In plants where does the electron transport chain occur? |
chloroplasts |
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In animals where does the electron transport chain occur? |
mitochondrion |
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How many steps is glycolysis? |
10 steps |
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Where does glycolysis occur? |
cytosol |
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1. Glycolysis |
glucose is broken down to pyruvate |
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2. Pyruvate Processing |
pyruvate is oxidized to form Acetyl CoA |
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3. Citric Acid Cycle (a.k.a Kreb Cycle) |
Acetyl CoA is oxidized to CO2 |
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4. Electron Transport and Chemiosmosis |
compounds reduced in steps 1-3 are oxidized in reactions leading to ATP production |
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What does Glycolysis consist of? |
energy investment phase energy payoff phase |
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What happens in the energy investment phase? |
-2 molecules of ATP are consumed -glucose is phosphorylated twice -forming fructose-1,6-bisphosphate |
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Oxidative Phosphorylation occurs in... |
an electron transport chain -a proton gradient provides energy for ATP production |
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Pyruvate Processing is |
second step in glucose oxidation -catalyzed by the enzyme pyruvate dehydrogenase -in the mitcohondrial matrix (or in the cytosol in bacteria and archaea) |
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In the presence of O2 |
pyruvate is converted to acetyl coenzyme (Acetyl CoA) by the enzyme pyruvate dehydrogenase |
