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231 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
produced by muscle exerting force on tendons as the muscle contracts
- tendons pull on bones |
movement
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muscle and attachment to the bone that stays more or less stationary
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origin
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muscle attachment to the bone that is moving
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insertion
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how do muscles provide effort to overcome resistance
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use of natural levers, bones and joints
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which levers are rigid structures that move on a fixed point
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bones
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fulcrrims (fixed point on which lever moves)
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joints
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what are 3 fubctions of nervous system
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sensory, integrative, motor
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monitors changes in internal and external environment
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sensory
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interprets changes (process sensory input)
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integrative
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effects a respone by activating muscle (all types) or glands
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motor
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how is the nervous system organized
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CNS, PNS
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brain and spinal cord
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CNS
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what are the 2 functional subdivisions of PNS
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sensory and motor
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how is motor broken down
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somatic and autonomic
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skeletal muscle
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somatic
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smooth or cardiac muscle or glands
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autonomic
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how is autonomic broken down
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sympathetic and parasympathetic
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speeds, fight or flight
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sympathetic
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slows, resting and digesting
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parasympathetic
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what is the cell histology of the nervous system
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neurons and supporting cells
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excitable cells
- conduct electrical impulses - have a long lifespan - lack mitotuc ability - have a high metabolic rate (demands lots of O2 and glucose) |
neuron
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non excitable; also called glial cells- nerve glue
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supporting cells
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what are the receptive regions
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dendrites/cell body
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biosynthetic center- DNA, RNA prod, no centrioles;nissl bodies (rough er)
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cell body
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conducting region impulse - generating region may be myelinated or not
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axon
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supporting cells are more abundant that neurons
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true
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what are the suppoting cells of the CNS
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astrocytes
micrgoglial cells ependymal cells oligodendrocytes |
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what are the suppoting cells of the PNS
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schwann
satellite |
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support and help keep neurons close to capillaries
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astrocytes
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specialized macrophages
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microglial cell
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ciliated; line cavity and help circulate cerebrospinal fluid
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ependymal cell
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processes wrap aroind axons in CNS, form myelin sheath
- lack ability to repair damage |
oligodendrocytes
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wrap axons in PNS forming sheath
- can aid in regeneration of nerve |
schwann cells
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chemical regulatory role
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satellite cells
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only on axons; if present make up white matter
- dev during late fetal period, continues through 1st yr |
myelin sheath
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how are neurons classified
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unipolar
bimolar multipolar |
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several dendrites, one axon
(most neurons in CNS) |
multipolar
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1 process (axon)
in sensory riit or spinal nerves |
unipolar
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what is the purpose of myelin sheath
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insulate and protect axons, speed up impulse conduction
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1 dendrite, 1 axon
(in eye, ear; olfactory of gustatory) |
bipolar
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impulses from receptors to CNS
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sensory
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impulse from CNS to effectors
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motor
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from sensory neurons to motor neurons (99% of all neurons
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association
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movement of charged particles
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current
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possessed by the membranes as it restricts the movement of charges
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resistance
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cant diffues across cell membrane
- must pass through channels (proteins in membrane which allow passage based on size and charge) - channels are located at particular sites on the membrane - selective |
ions
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what are the different types of ion channels
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- passive
-gated |
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leakage, non gated, always open
- Na channels allow Na in ( a lil bit) - K channel allows K out (much more than Na getting in) |
Passive channel
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in resting neuron there is a relatively high concentration of K inside (20-30x) and a relatively high concentration of Na outside the cell
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true
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channels may be open= activated closed, but able to open, or closed and unable to open=inactivated
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gated channel
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open when the appropriate chemical(neurotransmitter) binds
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chemically gated
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open in response and closein response to changes in membrane potential
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voltage gated
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what is the maintenance of resting potential voltage
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70mv; varies from 40-90
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what is the permeability of membrane for K leaking oout
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75x greater than Na leaking in
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what membrane proteins actively transport ions
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Na and K
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how many Na exported and K imported to stabilize resting potential
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Na (3); K (2)
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what do neurons use as communication signals
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change in membrane potential
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what are the signals of change in a neuron
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graded potential and action potential
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what are some components of action potential
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depolarization and hyperpolarization
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reduction in membrane potential (becomes less negative)
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depolarization
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membrane potential increases (becomes more negative)
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hyperpolarization
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incoming over short distance;
short lives, localized changes in membrane potential; triggered by stimuli in neurons environment that cause gated channels to open - current dissipitate quickly; die out w increaing distance from side of origin |
graded potentials
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long distance signals of axons (membrane potential changes to relative resting
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action potential
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involves 3 consecutive but over lapping changes in membrane potential
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action potential(nerve impulse)
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wha are the stages of action potential
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1. resting
2. depolarizing 3. repolarizing 4. hyperpolarizing |
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non conducting state
- voltage- gated channels closed * only leakage channels open |
resting
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how many gates do Na channels have
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2
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closed at rest; opens with depolarization
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activation gates
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blocks channel once opened
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inactivation gate
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what happens when depolarization opens
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Na channels are inactivated and both gates have to be open for Na to enter; if either one is closed, channel closed
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how many voltage gates do do active K channels have
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1
- closed at rest and slowly opens with depolarization |
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what happens in the depolarization phase
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there is a huge increase in permeability to Na (1000x, more than resting)
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axon membrane depolarized, Na rushes in and more depolarization becomes self generating when it reaches a critical level (threshold)
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depolarization phase
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what is the critical level (threshold of depolarization)
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-55 -50 mV
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explain the positive feedback with depolarization
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more Na enters, greater depolarization, opens more Na channels overshoots to +30mV
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what are the 2 subphases in repolarization
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decrease and increase
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with repolarization, what happens when there is a decrease in Na permeability
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inactivation gates closing
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with repolarization, what happens when there is an increase in K permeability
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K channels open; it leaves cell ;
decrease in Na; K out = repolarization=internal negativity restored |
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K permeability continues to restore resting state;
excess K efflux = afterhyperpolarization or undershoot - Na channels are resetting - electrical conditions back to resting but NOT ion distribution |
hyperpolarization
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what restores ion distribution
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Na K pumps after repolarization
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when does propagation (transmission) of action potential begin
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it begins at one end and is conducted to axon terminal (determine effect)
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usually depolarization of 15-20mV from resting required to generate an AP
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threshold
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what are the stages of the refractory period
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absolute and relative
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neuron cannot respond to another stimulus (from opening of Na channels to their resting)
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absolute
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follows absolute;
exceptionally strong stimulus could reopen Na channels (most Na channels reset; some K channels still open; repolarization occuring) |
relative
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what is conduction velocity
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varies, depending on where speed is more essential
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what 2 factors determine conduction velocity
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1. axon diameters
2. degree of myelination |
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unmyelinated
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slower
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depolarization the entire length of the axon
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continous conduction
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30x faster (DEPOLARIZATION ONLY AT NODES);
concentration of Na channels at nodes; saltatory conduction |
myelinated
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is temperature have an effect on neurons
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yes, warmer = faster
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how are nerve fibers classified
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Group A - C
- synapse - pre synaptic - post synaptic |
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large diameter heavily myelinated (150m/ sec)
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group A
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lightly myelinated intermediate diameter (15m/sec
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group B
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smallest diameter, unmyelinated 1m/sec
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group C
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functions between neurons sites of information transfer
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synapses
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conducts impulses towards synapse 8sender8
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pre- synaptic neuron
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conducts impulses away from synapse *receive*
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postsynaptic neuron
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what are the different kinds of synapses
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electrical and chemical
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uncommon;
connected by protein channels to adjacent neurons; ions flow directly from one to another rapid, synchronized communication |
electrical synapse
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relaease and reception of neurotransmitters
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chemical synapses
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what are the different types of chemical synapses
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1. axonal
2. receptor |
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pre synaptic neuron
- lots of synaptic vessicles contain neurotransmitter |
axonal terminal
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post synaptic neuron
- receptors that bind to neurotransmitter |
receptor region
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what is a synaptic cleft
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tiny spaces between 2 neurons
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how do neurons interact
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- chemical released, crosses clef, interacts w receptors
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what happens when calcium channels open in postsynaptic axon terminal
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membrane depolarizion opened Ca channels as well as Na
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what happens when neurotransmitter is released
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ca entry signals synaptic vessels to fuse w membrane foe exocytosis
- NT binds to postsynaptic receptor (NT crosses cleft to bind) |
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what happend when ion channels open in postsynaptic membrane
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depending on NT, receptor type and in channel- maybe excitation or inhibition
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Name 3 ways NT effects are terminated and return permeability to normal
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1. degrade NT enzymatically in cleft (ACH)
2. reuptake NT and store or degrade (NE)- norepinephrine 3. diffusion way from synapse |
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what happens with postsynaptic potentials and synaptic integration
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- NT bind to receptors and open ion channels
- mediate graded potentials (strength varies w amount of NT) and length of time it persists |
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what are the differsnt types of chemical synapses
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excitory or inhibitory
- depending on their effect on membrane potential |
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NT causes depolarization of post synaptic neurons membrane
(Na in, K out simultaneously)=net depolarization - localized graded event - only a few m sec long |
excitory synapse (EPSPs)
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what happens to post synaptic neurons in IPSP
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NT binding reduces postsynaptic neurons ability to generate AP
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what induces hyperpolarization in IPSP
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hyperpolarization induced by opening cl- channels (IN) and K channels (OUT)
- short lived, localized, degraded |
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1000s of ESPS add together to influence activity of post synaptic neuron
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integration: summation
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what are two kinds of integration or summation
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1. temporal
2. spatial |
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fast timing of bursts of neurotransmitter release by one or more pre-synaptic neurons
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temporal
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large # of neuron terminals from one (usually many more) neurons simulataneously stimulate a postsynaptic neuron
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spatial
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name some things that apply to both EPSPs and IPSPa
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- most neurons recieve both kinds of inputs from 1000's of other neurons
- many synapses w varied biochemical characteristics |
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less than threshold
= facilitation (more easily excited, closer to threshold, but AP not generated) |
EPSPs > IPSPs
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reaches threshold = AP generated
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EPSPs > IPSPs
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AP not generated
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IPSPs > EPSPs
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what are the components of NT
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1. Ach
2. Biogenic amines 3. purines 4. amino acids 5. peptides 6. dissolved gasses |
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best known; action varies w type of receptor
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Ach
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what are some biogenic amines
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norepinephrine
dopamine serotonin histamine |
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ATP, adenosine
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purines
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amino acids
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GABA, glutamate, glycine
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peptides
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endorphins, substance P, somatostatin
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dissolved gasses
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nitric oxide and carbon monoxide
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many diseases and substances can effect NT activity. Give some examples
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*botulins toxin
curare nerve gas barbiturates |
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inhibits Ach release, paralyzing voluntary muscle
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botulins toxin
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prevents Ach binding to receptors; paralyze muscle
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curare (arrow poison)
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prevent Ach breakdown by Ach E; prolonged muscle spasm
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nerve gas and malathion
|
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decreases rate of Ach release; act as CNS depressant
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barbiturates
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what are the different sections of brain
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- brain stem
- diencephalon -cerebral hemisphere? |
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midbrain
pons medulla oblongata |
brain stem
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- contains cerebral aqueduct
- superior colliculi - inferior colliculi |
midbrain quadrigemina
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what part of the midbrain is responsible for visual reflexes
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superior colliculi
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what part of the midbrain is responsible for auditory reflexes
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inferior colliculi
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- bridge between higher and lower centers and spinal cord
- contains nuclei that cooperate w nuclei in the medulla to control respiratory rate and depth |
pons
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cluster of cell bodies
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nuclei
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- contains ascending sensory tracts and descending motor tracts
- contains a number of visceral motor nuclei (reflex centers) |
medulla oblongata
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what are the different components of medulla oblongata
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- cardiac center
- vasomotor center - medullary rhythmicity center |
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helps regulate rate and force of contraction
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cardiac center
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regulates blood pressure by adjusting blood vessel diameter
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vasomotor center
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works with pons and lungs to regulate breathing other visceral nuclei contronl- vomiting, swallowin, sneezing, hicoping, coughing
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medullary rhythmicity center
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senctions of diencephalon
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thalamus
hypothalamus epithalamus |
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- numerous nuclei
- acts as relay stations for incoming sensory information to cortex for processing |
thalamus
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- other inputs to cortex via hypothalamus
- motor impulses to and from motor cortex and cerebellum (gateway to cortex) |
thalamus
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many homeostatic roles vital to the entire body
|
hypothalamus
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different elements of hypotalamus
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1. autonomic control center
2. center for emotional responses 3. regulation of food intake 4. body thermostat 5. water balance and thirst osmoreceptors 6. sleep wake cycles 7. controls endocrine system function |
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controls many ANS centers in brain and spinal cord
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autonomic control center
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perception of pleasure, fear, rage, biorhythm and sex drive
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center of emotional responses
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detect blood concentration;
promote ADH release |
water balance and thirst osmoreceptors
|
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- ptoduces releasing and inhibitory hormones that control the pituitary
- produces 2 other hormones ADH and oxytocin |
endocrine control system
|
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pineal gland/body secretes melatonin with hypothalamus, helps regulate sleep wake cycles
|
epithalamus
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secretes melatonin
|
pineal gland
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slee inducer
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melatonin
|
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about 83% of total brain mass
- 2 lg halves of cerebrum, each w five lobes |
cerebral hemispheres
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what are the 3 basic regions of the cerebral hemispheres
|
cortex
white matter basal nuclei |
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what are the cortex basics
|
1. 3 kinds of functional areas
2. each mainly controls events on opposite side of bosy 3. look the same, b ut not truly equal in function 4. great deal of overlap and interaction w inherent complexity |
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what are the 3 kinds of functional areas in cortex
|
motor
sensory association |
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what are the different motor areas of cortex
|
- primary motor cortex
- premotor cortex - brocas area - frontal eye field |
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contain regions control specific muscles on opposite side of body
|
primary motor cortex
|
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controls and coordinates movement of muscles involved in learned motor skills that are patterned or repetitions
|
premotor cortex
|
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what are some examples of premotor cortex
|
musical instrument and typing
|
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- motor speech area muscles involved in speech production
- preparing to speak - planning other motor activities |
brocas area
|
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voluntary eye movement (phonebook, dict)
|
frontal eye field
|
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what are the areas of the sensory areas in the cortex
|
1. primary somatosensory cortex
2. somatosensory association cortex 3. visual areas 4. auditory areas 5. olfactory cortex 6. gustatory cortex 7. visceral sensory area 8. vestibular cortex |
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areas received info from sensory receptors in skin and proprioceptors in muscle and joints (then identify location)
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primary somatosensory cortex
|
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integrates sensory inputs for an understanding of objects being felt (size, texture, relationships)
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somatosensory assoc cortex
|
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what are the different visual areas in the sensory area of the cortex
|
1. primary visual cortex
2. visual assoc area |
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recieves most input from retina
- largest sensory area |
primary visual cortex
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uses past visual experiences to interpret visual stimuli (recpgnition and appreciation)
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visual assoc area
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what are the different auditory areas
|
1. primary auditory cortex
2. auditory association area |
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pitch, volume, and location
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primary auditory cortex
|
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perception of speech, music, noise, scream, etc and memories of sounds
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auditory association area
|
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afferent impulses from receptors in nose - to - conscious awareness of odors
|
olfactory cortex
|
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perception of taste
|
gustatory cortex
|
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awareness of balance
|
visceral sensory area
|
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awareness of balance
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vestibular cortex
|
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what are the 3 association areas (multimodal)
|
1. anterior association
2. posterior association area 3. posterior association area |
|
processing multiple sensory inputs, memory, knowledge
|
association ares multimodal
|
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- intellect
- complex learning ability - working memory (things I need to know right now) - reasoning, abstract thinking - personaliry |
anterior association (prefrontal cortex)
|
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- pattern; face recognition
- bringing sensory inputs into a cohesive whole - understanding written and spoken language |
posterior association area
|
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- parts of limbic system
- provides emotional impact of a scene and memory of it |
limbic association area
|
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which part of the brain is responsible for
- language - math - logic - and is dominant in about 90% of people |
left side
|
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which side of the brain is responsible for
- visual spatial skills - intuition, emotion - musical, artistic |
right side
|
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cortex functions more bilaterally or one side fails to take major control of verbal function
|
dyslexia
|
|
large tracts of myelinated axons
|
white matter
|
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what are the sections of white matter
|
- commisural fibers
- association fibers - projection fibers |
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connect the 2 hemisperes
|
commisural fibers
|
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what 2 hemispheres does the commisural fibers connect
|
corpus collosum and anterior and posterior commissure
|
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connects different parts of same hemisphere
|
association fibers
|
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connects cerebrum and other brain regions
|
projection fibers
|
|
exact structures and precise functions somewhat controversal
deep structures overlapping function |
basal nuclei
|
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- role in motor control complex
- regulation of attention - learning |
basal nuclei
|
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11% of brain mass
|
cerebellum
|
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what are the functions of cerebellum
|
- suvconscious activity
- coordination of timing and patterns of skeletal muscle contractions - posture maintenance and equilibrium - stores motor memories of complex patterns |
|
mostly motor, some non motor activities involve cerebellum (word association and puzzle solving)
|
cerebellum
|
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what protects the brain and spinal cord
|
bone, meninges, cerebrospinal fluid and blood brain barrier
|
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what are the 3 coverings of the meninges which are continuous with brain and spinal cord?
|
dura mater
arachnoid mater pia mater |
|
what is the strongest, toughest layer of meninges
|
dura mater
|
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what type of tissue is in the dura mater
|
fibrous connective tissue and (subdural space)
|
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weblike extensions (subdural space filled with CSF and blood vessels)
|
arachnoid mater
|
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delicate connective tissue, right on the surface of brain and cord
|
pia mater
|
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liquid cushioning;
protection assists circulation (shock absorber) |
CSF
|
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- what is formed from plasma and has less protein and different ion concentrations
- formed by choroid plexuses - it is formed, circulated, and reabsorbed constantly |
CSF
|
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what is the function of the blood brain barrier
|
it helpd maintain chemical stability in the brain
|
|
it is least permeable cappilaries in brain
- not uniform throughout brain |
BBB
|
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what is bbb composed of
|
- glucose (easily diffuse), essential amino acids, some electrolytes
|
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what is one of the biggest benefit of BBB
|
many wastes, toxind, and drugs cant enter
|
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what is BBB ineffective against
|
fats and fat soluble substances;
O2, CO2, alcohol, nicotine, heroin and HIV (small) |
|
what can damage BBB
|
trauma, inflammation and heavy metals
|
|
what is the space outside the meninges between the dura mater
|
epidural space ( fat blood vessels)
|
|
= gray matter, arranged in horns (unmyelinated matter)
|
core of spinal cord
|
|
= white matter, arranged in columns ( arranged in tracts)
|
outer portion of spinal cord
|
|
where do the roots of all spinal nerves originate
|
spinal cord
|
|
what type of nerves are in the spinal cord
|
mixed
|
|
what type of nerve is in the vertebral root
|
motor
|
|
what type of nerve is in the dorsal root
|
sensory
|
|
what are some traumatic brain injuries (impact)
|
- concussion
- contusion - subdural/ subarachnoid hemorrhage - cerebral |
|
blow to the head and alters brain function
|
concussion
|
|
bruising of the brain
|
contussion
|
|
bleeding in spaces of the brain
|
subdural/ subarachnoid hemorrhage
|
|
swellin of the brain
|
edema
|
|
what are some degenerative disorders of the brain
|
1. alzheimers
2. parkinsons 3. huntington's |
|
- protein plaque mutation
- neuron tangles, kills neurons - Ach shortage |
Alzheimers disease
|
|
degeneration of dopamine- releasing neurons;
basal nuclei become overactive, producing tremors |
Parkinsons disease (Michael J Fox)
|
|
* fatal
- hereditary - mutant protein destroys brain tissue (eventually including cerebral cortex) *usually fatal within 15 yrs of onset of symptoms |
Huntington's disease (chorea)
|