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231 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
produced by muscle exerting force on tendons as the muscle contracts
- tendons pull on bones
movement
muscle and attachment to the bone that stays more or less stationary
origin
muscle attachment to the bone that is moving
insertion
how do muscles provide effort to overcome resistance
use of natural levers, bones and joints
which levers are rigid structures that move on a fixed point
bones
fulcrrims (fixed point on which lever moves)
joints
what are 3 fubctions of nervous system
sensory, integrative, motor
monitors changes in internal and external environment
sensory
interprets changes (process sensory input)
integrative
effects a respone by activating muscle (all types) or glands
motor
how is the nervous system organized
CNS, PNS
brain and spinal cord
CNS
what are the 2 functional subdivisions of PNS
sensory and motor
how is motor broken down
somatic and autonomic
skeletal muscle
somatic
smooth or cardiac muscle or glands
autonomic
how is autonomic broken down
sympathetic and parasympathetic
speeds, fight or flight
sympathetic
slows, resting and digesting
parasympathetic
what is the cell histology of the nervous system
neurons and supporting cells
excitable cells
- conduct electrical impulses
- have a long lifespan
- lack mitotuc ability
- have a high metabolic rate (demands lots of O2 and glucose)
neuron
non excitable; also called glial cells- nerve glue
supporting cells
what are the receptive regions
dendrites/cell body
biosynthetic center- DNA, RNA prod, no centrioles;nissl bodies (rough er)
cell body
conducting region impulse - generating region may be myelinated or not
axon
supporting cells are more abundant that neurons
true
what are the suppoting cells of the CNS
astrocytes
micrgoglial cells
ependymal cells
oligodendrocytes
what are the suppoting cells of the PNS
schwann
satellite
support and help keep neurons close to capillaries
astrocytes
specialized macrophages
microglial cell
ciliated; line cavity and help circulate cerebrospinal fluid
ependymal cell
processes wrap aroind axons in CNS, form myelin sheath
- lack ability to repair damage
oligodendrocytes
wrap axons in PNS forming sheath
- can aid in regeneration of nerve
schwann cells
chemical regulatory role
satellite cells
only on axons; if present make up white matter
- dev during late fetal period, continues through 1st yr
myelin sheath
how are neurons classified
unipolar
bimolar
multipolar
several dendrites, one axon
(most neurons in CNS)
multipolar
1 process (axon)
in sensory riit or spinal nerves
unipolar
what is the purpose of myelin sheath
insulate and protect axons, speed up impulse conduction
1 dendrite, 1 axon
(in eye, ear; olfactory of gustatory)
bipolar
impulses from receptors to CNS
sensory
impulse from CNS to effectors
motor
from sensory neurons to motor neurons (99% of all neurons
association
movement of charged particles
current
possessed by the membranes as it restricts the movement of charges
resistance
cant diffues across cell membrane
- must pass through channels (proteins in membrane which allow passage based on size and charge)
- channels are located at particular sites on the membrane
- selective
ions
what are the different types of ion channels
- passive
-gated
leakage, non gated, always open
- Na channels allow Na in ( a lil bit)
- K channel allows K out (much more than Na getting in)
Passive channel
in resting neuron there is a relatively high concentration of K inside (20-30x) and a relatively high concentration of Na outside the cell
true
channels may be open= activated closed, but able to open, or closed and unable to open=inactivated
gated channel
open when the appropriate chemical(neurotransmitter) binds
chemically gated
open in response and closein response to changes in membrane potential
voltage gated
what is the maintenance of resting potential voltage
70mv; varies from 40-90
what is the permeability of membrane for K leaking oout
75x greater than Na leaking in
what membrane proteins actively transport ions
Na and K
how many Na exported and K imported to stabilize resting potential
Na (3); K (2)
what do neurons use as communication signals
change in membrane potential
what are the signals of change in a neuron
graded potential and action potential
what are some components of action potential
depolarization and hyperpolarization
reduction in membrane potential (becomes less negative)
depolarization
membrane potential increases (becomes more negative)
hyperpolarization
incoming over short distance;
short lives, localized changes in membrane potential;
triggered by stimuli in neurons environment that cause gated channels to open

- current dissipitate quickly;
die out w increaing distance from side of origin
graded potentials
long distance signals of axons (membrane potential changes to relative resting
action potential
involves 3 consecutive but over lapping changes in membrane potential
action potential(nerve impulse)
wha are the stages of action potential
1. resting
2. depolarizing
3. repolarizing
4. hyperpolarizing
non conducting state
- voltage- gated channels closed
* only leakage channels open
resting
how many gates do Na channels have
2
closed at rest; opens with depolarization
activation gates
blocks channel once opened
inactivation gate
what happens when depolarization opens
Na channels are inactivated and both gates have to be open for Na to enter; if either one is closed, channel closed
how many voltage gates do do active K channels have
1
- closed at rest and slowly opens with depolarization
what happens in the depolarization phase
there is a huge increase in permeability to Na (1000x, more than resting)
axon membrane depolarized, Na rushes in and more depolarization becomes self generating when it reaches a critical level (threshold)
depolarization phase
what is the critical level (threshold of depolarization)
-55 -50 mV
explain the positive feedback with depolarization
more Na enters, greater depolarization, opens more Na channels overshoots to +30mV
what are the 2 subphases in repolarization
decrease and increase
with repolarization, what happens when there is a decrease in Na permeability
inactivation gates closing
with repolarization, what happens when there is an increase in K permeability
K channels open; it leaves cell ;
decrease in Na;
K out = repolarization=internal negativity restored
K permeability continues to restore resting state;
excess K efflux = afterhyperpolarization or undershoot
- Na channels are resetting
- electrical conditions back to resting but NOT ion distribution
hyperpolarization
what restores ion distribution
Na K pumps after repolarization
when does propagation (transmission) of action potential begin
it begins at one end and is conducted to axon terminal (determine effect)
usually depolarization of 15-20mV from resting required to generate an AP
threshold
what are the stages of the refractory period
absolute and relative
neuron cannot respond to another stimulus (from opening of Na channels to their resting)
absolute
follows absolute;
exceptionally strong stimulus could reopen Na channels (most Na channels reset; some K channels still open; repolarization occuring)
relative
what is conduction velocity
varies, depending on where speed is more essential
what 2 factors determine conduction velocity
1. axon diameters
2. degree of myelination
unmyelinated
slower
depolarization the entire length of the axon
continous conduction
30x faster (DEPOLARIZATION ONLY AT NODES);
concentration of Na channels at nodes;
saltatory conduction
myelinated
is temperature have an effect on neurons
yes, warmer = faster
how are nerve fibers classified
Group A - C
- synapse
- pre synaptic
- post synaptic
large diameter heavily myelinated (150m/ sec)
group A
lightly myelinated intermediate diameter (15m/sec
group B
smallest diameter, unmyelinated 1m/sec
group C
functions between neurons sites of information transfer
synapses
conducts impulses towards synapse 8sender8
pre- synaptic neuron
conducts impulses away from synapse *receive*
postsynaptic neuron
what are the different kinds of synapses
electrical and chemical
uncommon;
connected by protein channels to adjacent neurons;
ions flow directly from one to another
rapid, synchronized communication
electrical synapse
relaease and reception of neurotransmitters
chemical synapses
what are the different types of chemical synapses
1. axonal
2. receptor
pre synaptic neuron
- lots of synaptic vessicles contain neurotransmitter
axonal terminal
post synaptic neuron
- receptors that bind to neurotransmitter
receptor region
what is a synaptic cleft
tiny spaces between 2 neurons
how do neurons interact
- chemical released, crosses clef, interacts w receptors
what happens when calcium channels open in postsynaptic axon terminal
membrane depolarizion opened Ca channels as well as Na
what happens when neurotransmitter is released
ca entry signals synaptic vessels to fuse w membrane foe exocytosis
- NT binds to postsynaptic receptor (NT crosses cleft to bind)
what happend when ion channels open in postsynaptic membrane
depending on NT, receptor type and in channel- maybe excitation or inhibition
Name 3 ways NT effects are terminated and return permeability to normal
1. degrade NT enzymatically in cleft (ACH)
2. reuptake NT and store or degrade (NE)- norepinephrine
3. diffusion way from synapse
what happens with postsynaptic potentials and synaptic integration
- NT bind to receptors and open ion channels
- mediate graded potentials (strength varies w amount of NT) and length of time it persists
what are the differsnt types of chemical synapses
excitory or inhibitory
- depending on their effect on membrane potential
NT causes depolarization of post synaptic neurons membrane

(Na in, K out simultaneously)=net depolarization
- localized graded event
- only a few m sec long
excitory synapse (EPSPs)
what happens to post synaptic neurons in IPSP
NT binding reduces postsynaptic neurons ability to generate AP
what induces hyperpolarization in IPSP
hyperpolarization induced by opening cl- channels (IN) and K channels (OUT)
- short lived, localized, degraded
1000s of ESPS add together to influence activity of post synaptic neuron
integration: summation
what are two kinds of integration or summation
1. temporal
2. spatial
fast timing of bursts of neurotransmitter release by one or more pre-synaptic neurons
temporal
large # of neuron terminals from one (usually many more) neurons simulataneously stimulate a postsynaptic neuron
spatial
name some things that apply to both EPSPs and IPSPa
- most neurons recieve both kinds of inputs from 1000's of other neurons
- many synapses w varied biochemical characteristics
less than threshold
= facilitation (more easily excited, closer to threshold, but AP not generated)
EPSPs > IPSPs
reaches threshold = AP generated
EPSPs > IPSPs
AP not generated
IPSPs > EPSPs
what are the components of NT
1. Ach
2. Biogenic amines
3. purines
4. amino acids
5. peptides
6. dissolved gasses
best known; action varies w type of receptor
Ach
what are some biogenic amines
norepinephrine
dopamine
serotonin
histamine
ATP, adenosine
purines
amino acids
GABA, glutamate, glycine
peptides
endorphins, substance P, somatostatin
dissolved gasses
nitric oxide and carbon monoxide
many diseases and substances can effect NT activity. Give some examples
*botulins toxin
curare
nerve gas
barbiturates
inhibits Ach release, paralyzing voluntary muscle
botulins toxin
prevents Ach binding to receptors; paralyze muscle
curare (arrow poison)
prevent Ach breakdown by Ach E; prolonged muscle spasm
nerve gas and malathion
decreases rate of Ach release; act as CNS depressant
barbiturates
what are the different sections of brain
- brain stem
- diencephalon
-cerebral hemisphere?
midbrain
pons
medulla oblongata
brain stem
- contains cerebral aqueduct
- superior colliculi
- inferior colliculi
midbrain quadrigemina
what part of the midbrain is responsible for visual reflexes
superior colliculi
what part of the midbrain is responsible for auditory reflexes
inferior colliculi
- bridge between higher and lower centers and spinal cord

- contains nuclei that cooperate w nuclei in the medulla to control respiratory rate and depth
pons
cluster of cell bodies
nuclei
- contains ascending sensory tracts and descending motor tracts
- contains a number of visceral motor nuclei (reflex centers)
medulla oblongata
what are the different components of medulla oblongata
- cardiac center
- vasomotor center
- medullary rhythmicity center
helps regulate rate and force of contraction
cardiac center
regulates blood pressure by adjusting blood vessel diameter
vasomotor center
works with pons and lungs to regulate breathing other visceral nuclei contronl- vomiting, swallowin, sneezing, hicoping, coughing
medullary rhythmicity center
senctions of diencephalon
thalamus
hypothalamus
epithalamus
- numerous nuclei
- acts as relay stations for incoming sensory information to cortex for processing
thalamus
- other inputs to cortex via hypothalamus
- motor impulses to and from motor cortex and cerebellum (gateway to cortex)
thalamus
many homeostatic roles vital to the entire body
hypothalamus
different elements of hypotalamus
1. autonomic control center
2. center for emotional responses
3. regulation of food intake
4. body thermostat
5. water balance and thirst osmoreceptors
6. sleep wake cycles
7. controls endocrine system function
controls many ANS centers in brain and spinal cord
autonomic control center
perception of pleasure, fear, rage, biorhythm and sex drive
center of emotional responses
detect blood concentration;
promote ADH release
water balance and thirst osmoreceptors
- ptoduces releasing and inhibitory hormones that control the pituitary
- produces 2 other hormones ADH and oxytocin
endocrine control system
pineal gland/body secretes melatonin with hypothalamus, helps regulate sleep wake cycles
epithalamus
secretes melatonin
pineal gland
slee inducer
melatonin
about 83% of total brain mass
- 2 lg halves of cerebrum, each w five lobes
cerebral hemispheres
what are the 3 basic regions of the cerebral hemispheres
cortex
white matter
basal nuclei
what are the cortex basics
1. 3 kinds of functional areas
2. each mainly controls events on opposite side of bosy
3. look the same, b ut not truly equal in function
4. great deal of overlap and interaction w inherent complexity
what are the 3 kinds of functional areas in cortex
motor
sensory
association
what are the different motor areas of cortex
- primary motor cortex
- premotor cortex
- brocas area
- frontal eye field
contain regions control specific muscles on opposite side of body
primary motor cortex
controls and coordinates movement of muscles involved in learned motor skills that are patterned or repetitions
premotor cortex
what are some examples of premotor cortex
musical instrument and typing
- motor speech area muscles involved in speech production
- preparing to speak
- planning other motor activities
brocas area
voluntary eye movement (phonebook, dict)
frontal eye field
what are the areas of the sensory areas in the cortex
1. primary somatosensory cortex
2. somatosensory association cortex
3. visual areas
4. auditory areas
5. olfactory cortex
6. gustatory cortex
7. visceral sensory area
8. vestibular cortex
areas received info from sensory receptors in skin and proprioceptors in muscle and joints (then identify location)
primary somatosensory cortex
integrates sensory inputs for an understanding of objects being felt (size, texture, relationships)
somatosensory assoc cortex
what are the different visual areas in the sensory area of the cortex
1. primary visual cortex
2. visual assoc area
recieves most input from retina
- largest sensory area
primary visual cortex
uses past visual experiences to interpret visual stimuli (recpgnition and appreciation)
visual assoc area
what are the different auditory areas
1. primary auditory cortex
2. auditory association area
pitch, volume, and location
primary auditory cortex
perception of speech, music, noise, scream, etc and memories of sounds
auditory association area
afferent impulses from receptors in nose - to - conscious awareness of odors
olfactory cortex
perception of taste
gustatory cortex
awareness of balance
visceral sensory area
awareness of balance
vestibular cortex
what are the 3 association areas (multimodal)
1. anterior association
2. posterior association area
3. posterior association area
processing multiple sensory inputs, memory, knowledge
association ares multimodal
- intellect
- complex learning ability
- working memory (things I need to know right now)
- reasoning, abstract thinking
- personaliry
anterior association (prefrontal cortex)
- pattern; face recognition
- bringing sensory inputs into a cohesive whole
- understanding written and spoken language
posterior association area
- parts of limbic system
- provides emotional impact of a scene and memory of it
limbic association area
which part of the brain is responsible for
- language
- math
- logic
- and is dominant in about 90% of people
left side
which side of the brain is responsible for
- visual spatial skills
- intuition, emotion
- musical, artistic
right side
cortex functions more bilaterally or one side fails to take major control of verbal function
dyslexia
large tracts of myelinated axons
white matter
what are the sections of white matter
- commisural fibers
- association fibers
- projection fibers
connect the 2 hemisperes
commisural fibers
what 2 hemispheres does the commisural fibers connect
corpus collosum and anterior and posterior commissure
connects different parts of same hemisphere
association fibers
connects cerebrum and other brain regions
projection fibers
exact structures and precise functions somewhat controversal

deep structures overlapping function
basal nuclei
- role in motor control complex
- regulation of attention
- learning
basal nuclei
11% of brain mass
cerebellum
what are the functions of cerebellum
- suvconscious activity
- coordination of timing and patterns of skeletal muscle contractions
- posture maintenance and equilibrium
- stores motor memories of complex patterns
mostly motor, some non motor activities involve cerebellum (word association and puzzle solving)
cerebellum
what protects the brain and spinal cord
bone, meninges, cerebrospinal fluid and blood brain barrier
what are the 3 coverings of the meninges which are continuous with brain and spinal cord?
dura mater
arachnoid mater
pia mater
what is the strongest, toughest layer of meninges
dura mater
what type of tissue is in the dura mater
fibrous connective tissue and (subdural space)
weblike extensions (subdural space filled with CSF and blood vessels)
arachnoid mater
delicate connective tissue, right on the surface of brain and cord
pia mater
liquid cushioning;
protection
assists circulation (shock absorber)
CSF
- what is formed from plasma and has less protein and different ion concentrations
- formed by choroid plexuses
- it is formed, circulated, and reabsorbed constantly
CSF
what is the function of the blood brain barrier
it helpd maintain chemical stability in the brain
it is least permeable cappilaries in brain
- not uniform throughout brain
BBB
what is bbb composed of
- glucose (easily diffuse), essential amino acids, some electrolytes
what is one of the biggest benefit of BBB
many wastes, toxind, and drugs cant enter
what is BBB ineffective against
fats and fat soluble substances;
O2, CO2, alcohol, nicotine, heroin and HIV (small)
what can damage BBB
trauma, inflammation and heavy metals
what is the space outside the meninges between the dura mater
epidural space ( fat blood vessels)
= gray matter, arranged in horns (unmyelinated matter)
core of spinal cord
= white matter, arranged in columns ( arranged in tracts)
outer portion of spinal cord
where do the roots of all spinal nerves originate
spinal cord
what type of nerves are in the spinal cord
mixed
what type of nerve is in the vertebral root
motor
what type of nerve is in the dorsal root
sensory
what are some traumatic brain injuries (impact)
- concussion
- contusion
- subdural/ subarachnoid hemorrhage
- cerebral
blow to the head and alters brain function
concussion
bruising of the brain
contussion
bleeding in spaces of the brain
subdural/ subarachnoid hemorrhage
swellin of the brain
edema
what are some degenerative disorders of the brain
1. alzheimers
2. parkinsons
3. huntington's
- protein plaque mutation
- neuron tangles, kills neurons
- Ach shortage
Alzheimers disease
degeneration of dopamine- releasing neurons;
basal nuclei become overactive, producing tremors
Parkinsons disease (Michael J Fox)
* fatal
- hereditary
- mutant protein destroys brain tissue (eventually including cerebral cortex)
*usually fatal within 15 yrs of onset of symptoms
Huntington's disease (chorea)