Exam 1- Introduction, Research Methods, And Behavioral Neuroscience

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Psychology

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the scientific study of the mind, brain, and behavior

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Levels of analysis

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* rungs on a ladder of analysis, with lower levels tied most closely to biological influences and higher levels tied most closely to social influences
* Behavioral level
* Mental level
* Neurological/physiological level
* Neurochemical level
* Molecular level

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Multiply determined

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caused by many factors

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Individual differences

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* variations among people in their thinking, emotion, personality, and behavior

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Naive Realism

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* belief that we see the world precisely as it is

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Scientific theory

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explanation for a large number of findings in the natural world

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Hypothesis

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testable prediction derived from a scientific theory

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Confirmation Bias

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* tendency to seek out evidence that supports our hypotheses and deny, dismiss, or distort evidence that contradicts them
* Scientists need to design studies that may disprove their theories

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Belief Perserverance

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tendency to stick to our initial beliefs even when evidence contradicts them

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Metaphysical claim

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assertion about the world that is not testable

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Pseudoscience

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set of claims that seems scientific but isn’t

* lacks the safeguards against confirmation bias and belief perserverence that characterize science
* Testable beliefs that are not supported by evidence
* Recovered memories of child abuse, handwriting analysis, and some questionable psychotherapies

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Ad hoc immunizing hypothesis

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escape hatch or loophole that defenders if a theory use to protect their theory from falsification

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Patternicity

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the tendency to detect meaningful patterns in random stimuli

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Terror management theory

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theory proposing that our awareness of our own death leaves us with an underlying sense of terror with which we cope by adopting reassuring cultural world views

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Apophenia

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is the tendency to find connection among unrelated or random phenomena

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Pareidolia

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seeing meaningful images in visual stimuli

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Emotional reasoning fallacy

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using emotions rather than evidence as the guise

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Bandwagon fallacy

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lots of people believe it, so it must be true

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"Not me" fallacy

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other people may have those biases, but not me

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Scientific skepticism

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approach of evaluating all claims with an open mind but insisting on persuasive evidence before accepting them

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Critical thinking

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set of skills for evaluating all claims in an open-minded and careful fashion

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Correlation-causation fallacy

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error of assuming that because one thing is associated with another, it must cause the other

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Variable

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anything that can vary

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Falsifiable

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capable of being disproved

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Replicability

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when a study’s findings are able to be duplicated, ideally by independent investigators

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Decline effect

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fact that the size of certain psychological findings appears to be shrinking over time

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Occam's Razor

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* Does a simpler explanation fit the data as well
* Logical simplicity

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Psychology's Early History

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* For many centuries, psychology was indistinguishable from philosophy
* In 1879, William Wundt developed the first psychology laboratory in Germany

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Structuralism

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* Major figures were Wundt and E.B. Titchener
* Aimed to identify the most basic elements of psychological experience
* Encouraged systematic data collections and empiricism

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Functionalism

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* It's major figure was William James, heavily influenced by Charles Darwin
* Hoped to understand the adaptive purposes of thought and behavior
* "Stream of conciousness"
* Influenced evolutionary perspectives in modern psychology

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Behaviorism

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* Major figures were Piaget and Neisser
* Focuses on mental processes involved in different aspects of thinking
* Highlighted the role of thought and our interpretation of events in behavior

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Psychoanalysis

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* Major figures were Freud and Jung
* A Dangerous Method (movie project)
* May have actuallty retarded scientific advance of psychology, but theories of mental processing outside of conscious awareness are holding up

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Great debates in psychology

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* Nature-nurture: Are our behaviors attributable mostly to our genes our or rearing environments?
* Free will-determinism: To what extent are our behaviors freely selected, rather than caused by factors outside our control?

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Cognitive neuroscience

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* relatively new field of psychology that examines the relation between brain functioning and thinking

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Evolutionary psychology

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discipline that applies Darwin’s theory of natural selection to human and animal behavio

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Basic research

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* research examining how the mind works

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Applied research

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research examining how we can use basic research to solve real-world problems

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Prefrontal lobotomy

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surgical procedure that severs fibers connecting the frontal lobes of the brain from the underlying thalamus

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Heuristic

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mental shortcut or rule of thumb that helps us to streamline our thinking and make sense of our world

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Naturalistic observation

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watching behavior in real-world settings without trying to manipulate the situation

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External validity

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extent to which we can draw cause and effect inferences from a study

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Case study

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research design that examines one person or a small number of people in depth, often over an extended time period

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Existence proof

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demonstration that a given psychological phenomenon can occur

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Random selection

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procedure that ensures every person in a population has an equal chance of being chosen to participate

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Reliability

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consistency of measurement

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Validity

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extent to which a measure assess what it purports to measure

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Response set

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tendency of research participants to distort their response to questionnaire items

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Correlational Design

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research design that examines the extent to which two variables are associated

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Scatterplot

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grouping of points on a two-dimensional graph in which each dot represents a single person’s data

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Illusory correlation

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perception of a statistical association between two variables where none exists

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Experiment

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research design characterized by random assignment of participants to conditions and manipulation of an independent variable

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Random assignment

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randomly sorting participants in two groups

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Experiment group

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in an experiment, the group of participants that doesn’t receive the manipulation

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Control group

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in an experiment, the group of participants that doesn’t receive the manipulation

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Independent variable

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variable that an experiment manipulates

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Dependent variable

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variable that an experimenter measures to see whether the manipulation has an effect

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Operational definition

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a working definition of what a researcher is measuring

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Placebo effect

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improvement resulting from the mere expectation of improvement

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Blind

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unaware of whether one is in the experiment or control group

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Experimenter expectancy effect

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phenomenon in which researches’ hypotheses lead them to unintentionally bias the outcome of a study

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Double-blind

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when neither researchers nor participants are aware of who’s in the experimental or control group

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Demand characteristics

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cues that participants pick from a study that allow them to generate guesses regarding the researcher’s hypotheses

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Informed consent

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informing research participants of what is involved in a study before asking them to participate

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Statistics

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application of mathematics to describing and analyzing data

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Descriptive statistics

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numerical characterizations that describe data

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Central tendency

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measure of the “central” scores in a data set, or where the group tends to cluster

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Mean

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average; a measure of central tendency

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Median

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middle score in a data set; a measure of central tendency

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Mode

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most frequent score in a data set; a measure of central tendency

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Variability

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measure of how loosely or tightly bunched scores are

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Range

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difference between the highest and lowest scores; a measure of variability

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Standard deviation

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measure of variability that takes into account how far each data point is from the mean

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Inferential statistics

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mathematical methods that allow us to determine whether we can generalize finding from our sample to the full population

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Scientific skepticism

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Evaluating claims with an open mind, but insisting on persuasive evidence before accepting them

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Critical thinking

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A set of skills for evaluating all claims in an open- minded and careful fashion, which allows us to overcome our own biases

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6 Principles of Scientific Thinking

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1. Ruling out rival hypotheses
2. Correlation vs. causation
3. Falsifiability
4. Replicability
5. Extraordinary claims
6. Occam’s razor (KISS)

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System 1 (mode of thinking)

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* Intuitive thinking
* Quick, reflexive, almost automatic
* Relies on Heuristics

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System 2 (mode of thinking)

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* Analytical thinking
* Slow, reflexive, thoughtful

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Heuristics

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* They reduce the cognitive energy required to solve problems but we oversimplify reality.
* Representativeness heuristic

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Cognitive Biases

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* Confirmation Bias
* I knew it all along
* Overestimate abilities

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The Scientific Method

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* Naturalistic observation
* Case study
* Correlation design
* Experimental design

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Naturalistic Observation

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* Watching behavior in real-world settings
* extent to which we can generalize our findings to the real world
* extent to which we can draw cause-and-effect inferences

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Placebo effect

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* Participants must be blind to their assignment to groups
* Placebos show many of the same characteristics as real drugs

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Nocebo effect

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* harm resulting form the mere expectation of harm

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Experimenter expectancy effect

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* the mathematical horse
* maze-bright or maze-dull rats
* Using a double-blind design can decrease this

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Demand Characteristics

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* cues that participants pick up allowing them to guess at the researcher's hypothesis
* Disguising the purpose of the study or using "filler" items that can help to decrease these

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Institutional Review Board (IRB)

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* Justification of deception
* Debriefing of subjects afterwards

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Descriptive statistics

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* numerical characterizations of the data set

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Infrerential statistics

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* finding would have occurred by less than 1 in 20 times (p < 0.05)
* real-world importance

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peer review

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* helps to identify and correct flaws in research and research conclusions.
* Remember to keep a look out for confounds, placebos, experimenter expectancy, correlation vs. causation, and others.

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Evaluating Psychology in the Media

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* Tabloids vs. science magazines
* Beware of sharpening, leveling, and pseudo symmetry.

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Neurons

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nerve cell specialized for communication

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Cell Body (soma)

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central region of neuron

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Dendrites

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branchlike extensions of neurons that receive signals

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Axon

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portion of neuron that transmits the signals

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Synaptic vesicle

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spherical sac containing neurotransmitters

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Neurotransmitters

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chemical messengers that neurons use to communicate with each other

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Synapse

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space between two connecting neurons through which messages are transmitted chemically

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Synaptic cleft

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a gap into which neurotransmitters are released from the axon terminal

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Glial cells

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cell in nervous system that plays a role in the formation of myelin and the blood-brain barrier, responds to injury,, removes debris, and enhances learning and memory

Types:

* Astrocytes- the most abudndant and increase reliability of neuronal transmission repairative
* Ogligodendrocytes- produce new connections and produce the mylein sheath around the axons

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Myelin sheath

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glial cells wrapped around axons that act as insulators of the neurons signal

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Resting potential

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electrical charge difference (-60 millivolts) across the neuronal membrane, when the neuron is not being stimulated or inhibited

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Threshold

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membrane potential necessary to trigger an action potential

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Action potential

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electrical impulse that travels sown the axon triggering the release of neurotransmitters

* Abrupt waves of electrical discharge triggered by a change in charge inside the axon
* This is the neuron "firing," and all-or-none response
* Originate near cell body and travel down the axon to the axon terminal, triggering NT release
* When a neuron is at rest, then there are positive and negative ions on both sides of the membrane. During an action potential, positive ions rush in and then out of the axon. This process recurs along the axon until the axon terminal releases neurotransmitters

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Absolute refractory period

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time during which another action potential is impossible, limits maximal firing rate

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Receptor site

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location that uniquely recognizes a neurotransmitter

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Reuptake

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means of recycling neurotransmitters

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Glutamate

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* main excitatory neurotransmitter in the nervous system
* participates in relay of sensory information and learning

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GABA

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main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the nervous system

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Acetylcholine

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* Muscle contraction
* Cortical arousal

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Norepinephrine

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brain arousal and other functions like mood, hunger, and sleep

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Dopamine

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motor function and reward

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Serotonin

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mood and temperature regulation, aggression, and sleep cycles

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Anandamide

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pain reduction, increase in appetite

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Endorphins

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pain reduction

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Plasticity

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ability of the nervous system to change

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Neurogenesis

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creation of new neurons in the adult brain

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Stem cell

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a cell, often originating in embryos, having the capacity to differentiate into a more specialized cell

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Central nervous system (CNS)

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part of nervous system containing braun and spinal cord that controls the mind and behavior

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Cerebral ventricles

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pockets in the brain that contain cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), which provide the brain with nutrients and cushion against injury

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Cerebral cortex

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outermost part of forebrain, responsible for analyzing sensory processing and higher brain functions

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Forebrain (cerebrum)

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forward part of the brain that allows advanced intellectual abilities

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Cerebral hemisphere

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two halves of the cerebral cortex, each of which serve distinctly yet highly integrated functions

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Corpus callosum

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large band of fibers connecting the two central hemispheres

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Frontal lobe

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forward part of cerebral cortex responsible for motor function, language, memory, and planning

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Motor cortex

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part of frontal lobe responsible for body movement

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Prefrontal cortex

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part of frontal lobe responsible for thinking, planning, and language

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Broca’s area

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language area of the prefrontal cortex that helps control speech production

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Parietal lobe

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upper middle part of the cerebral cortex lying behind the frontal lobe which is specialized for touch and perception

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Temporal lobe

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lower part of cerebral cortex that plays roles in hearing, understanding language, and memory

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Wernicke’s area

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part of the temporal lobe involved in understanding speech

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Occipital lobe

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back part of cerebral cortex specialized for vision

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Primary sensory cortex

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regions of cerebral cortex that initially process information from the senses

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Association cortex

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regions of the cerebral cortex that integrate simpler functions to perform more complex functions

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Basal ganglia

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structures in the forebrain that help control movement

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Limbic system

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emotional center of the brain that also plays roles in smell, motivation, and memory

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Thalamus

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gateway from sense organs to the primary sensory cortex

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Hypothalamus

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part of brain responsible for maintaining a constant internal state

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Amygdala

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part of limbic system that plays key roles in fear, excitement, and arousal

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Hippocampus

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part of brain that plays a role in spatial memory

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Cerebellum

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* brain structure responsible for our sense of balance
* Affected when you consume alcohol

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Brain stem

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part of the brain between the spinal cord and cerebral cortex that contains the midbrain, pons, and medulla

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Midbrain

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part of the brain stem that contributes to movement, tracking of visual stimuli, and reflexes triggered by sound

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Reticular activating system (RAS)

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brain area that plays a key role in arousal

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Hindbrain

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region below the midbrain that contains the cerebellum, pons, and medulla

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Pons

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part of the brain that connects the cortex with the cerebellum

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Medulla

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part of brain stem involved in basic functions such as heartbeat and breathing

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Spinal cord

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thick bundle of nerves that conveys signals between the brain and the body

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Interneuron

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neuron that sends messages to other neurons nearby

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Reflex

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an automatic motor response to a sensory stimulus

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Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

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nerves in the body that extend outside the central nervous system

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Somatic nervous system

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part of nervous system that conveys information between the CNS and the body, controlling and coordinating voluntary movement

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Autonomic nervous system

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part of the nervous system controlling the involuntary actions of our internal organs and glands, which (along with the limbic system) participates in emotional regulation

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Sympathetic nervous system

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division of autonomic nervous system engaged during a crisis or after actions requiring fight or flight

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Parasympathetic nervous system

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division of autonomic nervous system that controls rest and digestion

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Endocrine system

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system of glands and hormones that controls secretion of blood-borne chemical messengers

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Hormones

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chemical released into the bloodstream that influences particular organs and glands

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Pituitary gland

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master gland that, under the control of the hypothalamus, directs other glands of the body

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Adrenal gland

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tissue located on top of the kidneys that releases adrenaline and cortisol during states of emotional arousal

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Electroencephalograph (EEG)

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recording of brain’s electrical activity at the surface of the skull

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Computed tomography (CT)

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a scanning technique using multiple X-rays to construct 3-D images

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Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

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technique that uses magnetic fields to visualize brain structure

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Positron emission tomography (PET)

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imaging technique that measures consumption of glucose-like molecules, yielding a picture of neural activity in different regions of the brain

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Functional MRI (fMRI)

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technique that uses magnetic fields to visualize brain activity using changes in blood oxygen level

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Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)

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technique that applies strong and quickly changing magnetic fields to the surface of the skull that can either enhance or interrupt brain function

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Magnetoencephalography (MEG)

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technique that measures brain activity by detecting tiny magnetic fields generated by the brain

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Lateralization

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cognitive function that relies more on one side of the brain than the other

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Split-brain surgery

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procedure that involves severing the corpus callosum to reduce the spread of epileptic seizures

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Left Hemisphere

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* speech comprehension
* speech production
* phonology
* syntax
* reading
* writing
* making facial expressions
* motion detection

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Right Hemisphere

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* Simple speech
* Simple writing
* tone of voice
* perceptual grooming
* face perception

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Chromosomes

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slender thread inside a cell’s nucleus that carries genes

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Genes

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genetic material, composed of DNA

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Genotype

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our genetic makeup

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Phenotype

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our observable traits

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Dominant

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gene that masks other genes’ effects

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Recessive

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gene that is expressed only in the absence of a dominant gene

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Fitness

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organisms’ capacity to pass on their genes

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Heritability

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percentage of variability in a trait across individuals that is due to genes

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Family study

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analysis of how characteristics run in intact families

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Twin study

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analysis of how traits differ in identical versus fraternal twins

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Adoption study

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analysis of how traits vary in individuals raised apart from their biological relatives