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229 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What galaxy are we from?
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The Milky Way galaxy.
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When did the Big Bang occur?
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13.7 billion years ago. (Round up to 15 billion.)
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Everything is moving away from everything else in the Universe. T or F?
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True
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What is the Doppler effect?
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When something moves away from you the frequency of light increases, so the spectrum of light moves more towards the red end.
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The farther things are...
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The faster they are moving.
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To what degree is there background radiation above absolute zero?
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2.7 degree
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What atoms originally diffused from the Big Bang?
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Hydrogen atoms
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How were all elements formed up to Fe (iron)?
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Compressional heating and burning
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What formed the heavier elements?
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Neutron capture and supernova
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(Origin of the Solar System) What is the nebular hypothesis and who proposed it?
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Descartes proposed the formation of the solar system from a gigantic whirlpool within universal fluid.
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(Origin of the Solar System) When did Descartes create this hypothesis?
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1644
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(Origin of the Solar System) What does this nebular hypothesis explain?
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Formation as a condensation and collapse of interstellar material due to influence of gravity.
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(Origin of the Solar System) There is a similar plane of orbits. T or F.
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True
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(Origin of the Solar System) There is a difference in the composition of inner and outer planets. T or F.
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True
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(Evolution of the Planets) Based on the nebular hypothesis when did the planets form?
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5 billion years ago
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(Evolution of the Planets) How can we get this estimation of when the planets formed?
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Age and date of meteorites
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(Evolution of the Planets) What happened to the materials that compose the planets?
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They separated
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(Evolution of the Planets) When the lighter elements migrated toward the surface, the process is called? (2 names)
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Chemically differentiated or density stratification
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(Evolution of the Planets) What were these lighter elements that chemically differentiated?
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Silicate minerals, oxygen and hydrogen.
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(Evolution of the Planets) Dense metallic materials went where in a planet? What were these elements?
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Fe, Ni, these elements sank toward the center or core.
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The inner core of the Earth is?
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Solid
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The outer core of the Earth is?
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Liquid
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The Earth has a inner core, an outer core...(In order)
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A mantle, crust, and atmosphere.
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How did Earth's atmosphere form?
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Volcanic gases
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The Earth was very "hot" in the beginning, this was because...
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There was not a lot of oxygen or nitrogen.
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As the Earth cooled, water began to collect on the surface, what formed from the result?
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Our early oceans.
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Evidence points that oceans existed...
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4 billion years ago
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What is the age of Earth?
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Approximately 4.6 billion year ago
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Earth is "just the right" temperature to have what in it's solid, liquid and gas form?
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Water
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Draw the water molecular, is this molecule polar?
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Yes it is polar.
H+ / -O 105 degrees \ H+ |
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The water molecule is dipolar because...
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Excess positive (H+) on one side, and excess negative (O-) on the other.
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The polar nature of water molecules allows them to bond to each other. T or F.
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True
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What is a H+ ----- O- bond?
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A hydrogen bond.
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Compared to a covalent bond the hydrogen bond...
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Is only 4% as strong as covalent.
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The hydrogen bond is due to?
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Electrostatic force
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The H-bonding gives water many of it's properties. T or F?
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True
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What molecules is termed the universal solvent?
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Water
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Water has a high capacity to absorb high amounts of heat this allows...
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Oceans to transport heat with currents.
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How much of the ocean is water and how much of it is salt?
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96.5% water and 3.5% salt
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How many parts per thousand of salt is in ocean?
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35 ppt
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Salinity affects the physical properties of sea water, what are these properties and what are they termed? (5)
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These are colligative properties.
1.) Heat capacity decreases 2.) Freezing point lowers 3.) Sea water evaporates more slowly then fresh 4.) Osmotic pressure increases with salinity |
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What are the six most abundant constituents of sea water after H and O?
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Cl-, Na+, So4 2-, Mg2+, Ca 2+, and K+.
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These six constituents of sea water (After O and H) make up how much of the salinity?
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99%
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What is the principle of constant proportions?
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The ratio of the major conservative constituents in sea water remain constant, regardless of where in the ocean you look.
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Because constancy of composition measuring just one of the constituents can get salinity. T or F?
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True
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What is the easiest and most abundant constituent?
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Cl-
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What is the mass of chlorine (Plus halogens, fluorine, bromide, and iodine.) called?
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Chlorinity
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Salinity = ______ x Chlorinity?
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1.80655
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What are some sources of salts in the ocean, that can account for the salinity of the ocean?
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Weathering of rocks and volcanism
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What is the very basic definition of minerals?
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Building blocks of rocks
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How many naturally occurring elements are there?
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92
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Atoms are made up of?
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Protons, neutrons, and electrons.
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Protons and neutrons also make up what in an atom?
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The nucleus
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The atomic number of an element is?
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The number of protons
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Atomic mass is?
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Protons plus the neutrons
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Isotopes are?
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The same element that just has more or less neutrons. (C12, C13, and C14)
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Molecules are?
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Two or more different elements bonded together. (Nonmetal + nonmetal)
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A compound is?
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Two or more of the same elements bonded together. (O2, 03)
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Ions are?
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Charged atom with a gain or loss of electrons.
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Name 4 "common bonds."
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Ionic, covalent, Metallic bonds, and Van der Waals bond.
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An ionic bond is?
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Exchange of an electron.
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A covalent bond is?
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Atoms that share electrons.
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Metallic bonds are?
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Electrons drifting freely among atoms. (Ag - silver)
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Van der Waals bond is?
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A weak attractive force.
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What is a mineral? (5)
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1.) Naturally occurring
2.) Inorganic 3.) Crystalline solid 4.) Narrowly defined chemical composition 5.) Characteristic chemical properties |
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Name some mineral physical properties. (8)
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1.) Crystal shape or habit
2.) Luster 3.) Color 4.) Streak 5.) Hardness 6.) Cleavage or Fracture 7.) Specific gravity 8.) Other properties may include magnetism, smell, double refraction |
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What is the crystal shape or habit?
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The external shape of the internal structure of a mineral.
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What is luster?
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The appearance of light on the surface of a mineral.
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What is streak?
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The color obtained by rubbing the mineral on white porcelain.
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What is the color of a mineral?
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The external colors that often varies and is not a reliable property to identify a mineral.
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How is hardness determined?
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Moh's hardness scale
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What is cleavage and how is it caused?
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How a mineral breaks when stressed. This is caused by the planes of weaker bonds within a mineral.
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What is fracture?
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If a mineral does not have cleavage, it may have a certain pattern of breaks. (Conchoidal fracture - Quartz)
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What is specific gravity?
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The relative weight compared to an equal volume of water.
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About how many minerals are there?
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Approximately 3000
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How many minerals are common?
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Approximately 20 that are common.
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There are about a dozen different classes of minerals. T or F?
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True
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The most common rock forming minerals are from the silicate class, which is made up off?
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Silicon and oxygen
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What are the five structural groups of the silicate class?
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1.) Isolated tetrahedra
2.) Single chains 3.) Double chains 4.) Sheet silicates 5.) Framework |
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What is an isolated tetrahedra?
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Oxygen bonded to other atoms. Ex.) Olivine group
/\ /\ /\ |
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What is a single chain structure of the silicate class?
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Share 2 oxygen with adjacent tetrahedra. Ex.) Pyroxene group /\./\./\
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What is a double chain structure in the silicate class?
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Some share 2 others share 3 oxygen
Ex.) Amphibole group /.\ ./\. /\./\ |
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Sheet silicates?
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Share 3 oxygen, they form sheets. Bonds within layers are stronger than across layers.
Ex.) Biotite, Muscovite Mica |
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Framework of silicates?
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Share all four O's in interlocking 3D Ex.) Quartz and Feldspar
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Name the mineral classes. (8)
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1.) Silicate class
2.) Oxide class 3.) Carbonate class 4.) Sulfide class 5.) Sulfate class 6.) Halide class 7.) Phosphate class 8.) Native elements |
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What is the oxide class?
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Oxygen bonded to something other than Si.
Ex.) Hematite (Fe2O3) and Magnetite (Fe3O4) |
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Carbonate class?
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Contains CO3 2- ion
Ex.) Calcite (CaCO3) and Dolomite (MgCa(CO3)2) |
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Sulfide class?
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Contains S
Ex.) Gelena (PbS), Pyrite (FeS2), and Sphalerite (ZnS) |
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Sulfate class?
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Contains SO4 2-
Ex.) Gypsum (CaSO4) and Barite (BaSO4) |
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Halide class?
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Contains F, Cl, Br, or I
Ex.) Halite (NaCl) and Fluorite (CaF2) |
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Phosphate class?
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Contains PO4 3-
Ex.) Apatite (Ca5(CO4)3F) |
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Native elements?
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Single element mineral
Ex.) Gold (Au), Silver (Ag), Copper (Cu), Sulfur (S), and Diamond (C) |
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What are rocks?
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Materials made up of solid Earth. Solid aggregates of grains of one or more minerals. (Exceptions included volcanic glass and coal.)
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What are the three types of rock?
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1.) Igneous
2.) Sedimentary 3.) Metamorphic |
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The general classification of the rocks include?
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Texture and mineralogy
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Texture refers to?
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Size, shape, and mineralogic interrelationships.
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The mineralogy of an igneous rock...
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Gives info about cooling history.
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The mineralogy of a sedimentary rock...
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is clastic, it gives info about depositional history.
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The mineralogy of a metamorphic rock...
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Gives info about tectonic history.
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The rock cycle starts with?
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Igneous rocks that form from cooling of magma or lava.
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After the igneous rocks are formed in the rock cycle what happens?
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Weathering, erosion make sediments that are deposited.
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After these sediments are deposited in the rock cycle what's next?
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Lithification occurs that will compact or cement the sediments together, creating the sedimentary rocks.
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After the formation of sedimentary rocks, what happens in the rock cycle?
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Heat and pressure on the pre-existing rocks changes them to metamorphic rocks.
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Once metamorphic rocks are formed, what happens?
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Then the melting of the metamorphic rocks in the Earth causes them to become magma.
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How does an igneous rock form?
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As magma cools and crystallizes.
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If this cooling occurs inside the Earth, these igneous rocks are termed?
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Plutonic or intrusive
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When magma gets to the surface it turns into lava which then cools on the surface to become igneous rocks termed?
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Volcanic or extrusive
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What is the Bowen's Reaction Series?
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It describes the order of crystallization as magma cools.
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What is the order of colors from dark to light in the Bowen's Reaction Series?
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Ultramafic, mafic, intermediate, and felsic
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Ultramafic usually contains which minerals?
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Olivine, pyroxene, and some Ca-rich plagioclase.
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Mafic also termed ______ has which minerals present in it?
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Basaltic, which can contain some olivine, pyroxene, amphibole, and Ca - plagioclase feldspar. (Basalt is the common extrusive and gabbro is common intrusive.)
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Intermediate also termed _______ has which minerals present in it?
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Andesitic, mostly plagioclase, some amphibole, and pyroxene. (Andesite -common extrusive and Diorite - common intrusive)
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Felsic also _______ has which minerals present in it?
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Granitic, which can have biotite, muscovite, potassium feldspar, and quartz. (Rhyolite - common extrusive and Granite - common intrusive)
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Basaltic, andesitic, and granitic express...
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Which kinds of rocks are formed from the minerals present in each stage.
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From top to bottom what does the Bowen's Reaction Series do? (4)
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1.) Decreasing temperature
2.) Dark to light color 3.) Decreasing density 4.) Increasing viscosity |
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What is viscosity?
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The ability to flow.
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The classification of igneous rocks is based on?
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Texture and composition
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Texture in igneous rocks refers to?
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Size, shape, and arrangement of crystals.
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Rapid cooling in igneous rocks create?
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Fine-grained (Smaller than the eye can see) crystals or aphanitic texture, and usually extrusive. (Volcanic)
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What is aphanitic?
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Fine-grained texture
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Slow cooling in igneous rocks create?
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Coarse-grained crystals or phanertic texture, and usually intrusive. (Plutonic)
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What is phaneritic?
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Coarse-grained texture
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A combination of both aphanitic (Fine-grained) and phaneritic (Coarse-grained) makes?
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Porphyritic
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Vesicular texture is?
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A lot of air pockets in rock.
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What are all the textures of igneous rocks? (4)
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Aphanitic (Fine-grained), phaneritic (Coarse-grained), vesicular and glassy.
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The composition of igneous rocks is largely based on?
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The magma or lava that makes the rock.
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What percentage of silica is in a mafic igneous rock?
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45-52%
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What percentage of silica is in a intermediate igneous rock?
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53-65%
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What percentage of silica is in a felsic rock?
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Greater than 65% (> 65%)
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When some components are taken out of magma this is?
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Magma differentiation
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Other igneous rocks other than ultramafic, mafic, intermediate, and felsic.
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Pyroclastic tuff, obsidian, and pumice.
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What is a pyroclastic tuff?
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Fire particles, or welded tuffs. These are particles that stuck together in air and formed together.
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Basalts and gabbros (Mafic) can be found where?
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Mid-ocean spreading centers, or hot spots.
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Diorites and andesites (Intermediate) can be found where?
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Subduction zones
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Granites and Rhyolites (Felsic) can be found where?
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Large plutons and remelting of continental material.
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Peridotite is?
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Mantle material
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What is weathering?
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Physical breakdown and chemical alteration of rocks at Earth's surface.
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What is mass wasting?
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Transfer of rock and soil downslope due to gravity.
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What is erosion?
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Physical removal of material by water, wind, or ice.
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What is mechanical weathering?
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The physical forces that break apart rocks.
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What are some examples of mechanical weathering? (4)
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Frost wedging, thermal expansion, unloading, and biological activity.
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Frost wedging is?
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The repeated freeze/thaw cycles that may break apart rocks.
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What is thermal expansion?
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A rock expanding and then shrinking back to normal size due to daily temperature changes.
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What is unloading and what is another term for it?
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Exfoliation, caused by removing of material and reduction of pressure on top of rock. (Think of layers of an onion.)
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What is biological activity?
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Roots, burrowing organisms, ect., that may break down a rock.
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What is chemical weathering?
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The alteration of minerals by removing or adding elements.
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What agent is the most common in chemical weathering?
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Water
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What are a couple other agents?
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Oxygen can come in contact with iron and make it rust. Water can combine with CO2 and make carbonic acid that can break down rocks.
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The rates of weathering is controlled by?
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The rock type and the climate.
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The rate of weathering in igneour rocks is...
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The Bowen's reaction Series in reverse.
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Differential weathering is?
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Masses of rock that do not weather uniformly, sometimes creating unique forms.
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What is carst?
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When the differential weathering leaves protrusions of rock. (Domes or jagged.)
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Sedimentary rocks are the most common rocks at Earth's surface. T or F?
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True
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How are sedimentary rocks formed?
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From compaction or cementation
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Why are sedimentary rocks important at Earth's surface?
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Fossil fuel reservoirs and important recorders of Earth's history.
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Detrital sediment also known as _______ is?
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Clasts, rock fragments and mineral grains.
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Chemical sediments are?
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Precipitated from a solution. (May be biologically aided or inorganic precipitation.)
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Detrital (Clastic) sedimentary rocks are classified by?
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Grain size
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These detrital (clastic) sedimentary rocks that are classified by grain size are broken up into?
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Gravel size, sand size, and finer grain size.
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Gravel size is?
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(>2 mm) Particles are conglomerates and breccias.
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Sand size is?
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(1/16 mm - 2 mm) Creates sandstones.
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Finer grain size is?
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Siltstone (1/256 -1/16 mm) and shales or mudstones (1/256 mm)
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Lithification is?
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The process that turns sediment into a sedimentary rock.
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Lithification includes?
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Compaction and cementation
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Chemical sedimentary rocks are classified by?
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Composition
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Chemical sedimentary rocks that are biochemical in origin may include?
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Coquina and chalk
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Chert (Also flint and jasper) is formed from?
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Silica (Conchiodal fracture)
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Some examples of evaporites are?
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Gypsum and Halite
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Coal is mainly composed of?
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Organic matter
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The structures of sedimentary rock...
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Are characteristic of transport and environment of deposition.
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What is bedding in sedimentary rocks?
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Layers of sedimentary rocks put down.
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Some examples of bedding of sedimentary rocks include?
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Cross-bedding, ripple marks or sound waves, and mudcracks.
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Cross-bedding in sedimentary rocks is?
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Graded bedding
////////// \\\\\\\\\ ////////// |
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What does metamorphism refer to?
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A "change" in the rock.
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Metamorphic rocks are formed from?
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Pre-existing rocks that are subjected to high temperatures and pressures.
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Does the rock have to remain solid in a metamorphism?
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Yes, or it would become magma.
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Temperature creates changes beginning at 200 degrees C in metamorphic rocks, what happens after?
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Plastic deformation or realignment of minerals may occur, then the rocks change to more stable high temp minerals.
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The banded textural property refers to?
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The bands of minerals that "flowed."
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(Metamorphic rocks) When a rock has pressure put on it...
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Grains can move, rotate, or fracture.
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After temperature and pressure a metamorphic rock may...
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Recrystallize
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Fluid activity in metamorphic rocks refers to?
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Alteration to a new mineral. (Hydrothermal)
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What types of metamorphism are there?
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Contact (Thermal) or regional
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Contact or ______ metamorphism is?
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Thermal, occurs when "country rocks" are subjected to high temperatures. (Next to magma for instance.) This is like "baking" the rock, which can alter fluid inclusions also.
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Regional metamorphism occurs when?
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Both temperature and pressure are high. (Mountain building episodes for example.) This occurs in deep burial (Large scale) and the high pressures may induce ductile behavior.
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The classification of metamorphic rocks is based on?
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Texture and composition
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Some common foliated rocks include?
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Shale, phyllite, schist, and gneiss.
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Slate is?
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Fine-grained, slaty cleavage (Foliation), low grade metamorphic rock, and has a dull appearance.
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Phyllite is?
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Coarser grained than shale, but finer than schist, similar in composition, shiny, and glossy. (Phylite foliation)
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Schist is?
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High grade regional metamorphism, schitosity (Foliation), coarse grained, and mica common.
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Gneiss is?
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Highest grade foliated metamorphic rock, bond of light and dark minerals called gneiss bonding. (Foliation)
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Non-foliated metamorphic rocks are generally...
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Massive (Meaning no foliation) and 1 mineral.
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Marble is?
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Recrystallized calcite from limestone or dolostone.
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Quartzite is?
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Recrystallized quartz and medium to high grade metamorphism.
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Hornfels is?
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Massive (No foliation), dark, fine grained, and contact metamorphism.
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Greenstone is?
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Altered mafic igenous rock and low to medium grade metamorphic rock.
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What is facies?
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Grouping of things seen together a lot. Ex.) Temperature and pressure for metamorphic rocks
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Low temperature and high pressure makes what kind of facies?
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Blueschist facies Ex.) From ancient subduction zones
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Low temperature and low pressure makes what kind of facies?
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Greenschist facies
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Increasing temperature and pressure makes what kind of facies?
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Amphibole facies and granulite facies
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Deformation as it refers in structural geology is?
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A general term that refers to all changes in the original form and/or size of a rock body.
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There may be brittle or ductile deformation. T or F?
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True
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What are some factors that influence the strength of a rock? (3)
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1.) Temperature and confining pressure
2.) Rock type 3.) Time |
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What is confining pressure?
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Rock material on top creating vertical pressure.
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Most folds are a result from?
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Compressional forces which shorten and thicken the crust.
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What are the types of folds?
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Anticline, Syncline, Dome, or Basin.
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Anticline is?
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Upfolded or arched rock layers
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Syncline is?
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Downfolded or "u" shaped rock layers
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Anticline and Synclines can be...(3)
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1.) Symmetrical
2.) Asymmetrical 3.) Overturned |
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Symmetrical folds are?
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Limbs are mirror images of each other.
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Assymetrical folds are?
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Limbs are not mirror images of each other.
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Overturned is?
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One limb is tilted beyond the vertical.
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Where folds die out, there are said to be?
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Plunging fields
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A dome fold is? (3)
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1.) Circular or slightly elongated
2.) Upwarped displacement of rocks 3.)Oldest ricks in core / / / /\ \ \ \\ / / / / \ \ \ \ \ ---------------- Oldest rocks |
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A basin fold is? (3)
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1.) Circular or slightly elongated
2.)Downwarped displacement of rocks 3.) Youngest rocks in core Youngest rocks ________ \\\\\\//////// \\\\\\//////// |
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What are faults?
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Breaks or fractures in rocks along which appreciable displacement has taken place.
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What is a dip-slip fault?
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Movement along the inclination (dip) of fault plane.
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What are the parts of the dip-slip fault?
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Hanging wall and foot wall
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What is the hanging wall of the dip-slip fault?
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The rock above fault surface.
___ \ ^--------Hanging wall |
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What is the foot wall of the dip-slip fault?
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The rock below the fault surface.
__________ \ ^--------Foot wall |
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What are the types if dip-slip faults?
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Normal, reverse and thrust faults, and detachment and listric.
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What is a normal dip-slip fault? (4)
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1.) Hanging wall blocks moves down
2.) Associated with fault-block mountains 3.) Prevalent at spreading centers 4.) Caused by tensional forces |
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What is a reverse and thrust fault?
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1.) Hanging wall moves up
2.) Caused by strong compressional stresses |
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What is the difference between a reverse and thrust fault?
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Reverse - dips greater than 45 degrees
Thrust - dips less than 45 degrees |
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What are horst and grabens?
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Horst is the high areas and grabens is the low areas.
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What is a detachment fault and a listric fault?
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Continued extensional fault
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What is a strike-slip fault?
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Dominant displacement is horizontal and parallel to the trend or strike.
^ | \/ |
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What is a transform fault?
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It is another term for a strike-slip fault. It is a large strike-slip fault that cuts through the lithosphere. It is often associated with plate boundaries.
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What are joints?
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Fractures along with no appreciable displacement.
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How are most joints formed?
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When rocks in the outermost crust are deformed.
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