Exam 1

Front 1

most common recent ancestor (MCRA)

Back 1

share closest connected node

Front 2

tRNA

Back 2

carries individual amino acids to ribosomes to make protein

Front 3

rRNA

Back 3

helps make up ribosomes

Front 4

ribosome

Back 4

organelle in cytoplasm - synthesizes proteins

Front 5

genetic code

Back 5

translation of codons to amino acids

Front 6

phospholipid

Back 6

derivatives with 2 hydrophobic fatty acids and a hydrophilic phosphate group (makes up bilayers)

Front 7

carbohydrate

Back 7

source of energy and structure, made of sugars, C, H, O: 1:2:1

Front 8

allele

Back 8

different variations of a gene - from mutations

Front 9

binary fission

Back 9

division of prokaryotic cells

Front 10

centromere

Back 10

holds together sister chromatids

Front 11

chiasmata

Back 11

crossover parts of bivalents with sister chromatids

Front 12

cytokinesis

Back 12

division of cell cytoplasm

Front 13

diploid

Back 13

2 complete sets of chromosomes (human somatic cells)

Front 14

haploid

Back 14

1 complete set of chromosomes (human germ cells)

Front 15

homologous chromosomes

Back 15

not sex chromosomes; one from father, one from mother

Front 16

interphase

Back 16

part of cell cycle: G1, S, G2; preparation for cell division

Front 17

M-phase

Back 17

part of cell cycle, parent cell divides into 2 daughter cells, mitosis and cytokinesis

Front 18

meiosis

Back 18

division of sex cells, results in 4 daughter cells, half the chromosomes, daughter cells unique

Front 19

metaphase

Back 19

spindle complete, chromosomes line up

Front 20

mitosis

Back 20

division of cell nucleus

Front 21

non-disjunction

Back 21

failure of chromosomes/chromatids to separate properly during cell division

Front 22

recombination

Back 22

rearrangement of genetic material especially crossing over

Front 23

S-phase

Back 23

synthesis, replication of DNA between G1 and G2

Front 24

sister chromatids

Back 24

duplicated chromosomes connected to parent after S-phase, genetically identical

Front 25

zygote

Back 25

2 gametes come together and fuse, result of fertilization

Front 26

backcross

Back 26

crossing hybrid with parent of genetically similar to parent

Front 27

F1/F2

Back 27

First offspring/F1 offspring

Front 28

genotype

Back 28

genetic makeup

Front 29

hybridization

Back 29

interbreeding between 2 different varieties of a species or organism

Front 30

nonsense mutation

Back 30

creates stop codon

Front 31

nonsynonymous (missense) mutation

Back 31

results in amino acid replacement (point mutation)

Front 32

phenotype

Back 32

observable characteristics or traits

Front 33

polymorphism

Back 33

genetic difference among individuals common so that it is probably in a group of 50 individuals

Front 34

reciprocal crosses

Back 34

expression of trait male and female parents interchanged

Front 35

segregate

Back 35

formation of gametes - half get one allele and half get other allele

Front 36

synonymous (silent) mutation

Back 36

does not change amino acid for codon

Front 37

testcross

Back 37

cross of unknown genotype with homozygous recessive genetype

Front 38

true-breeding

Back 38

phenotype of each offspring identical to previous

Front 39

translocation

Back 39

one part of a chromosome breaks off and attaches to another

Front 40

codominance

Back 40

both alleles are dominant

Front 41

dihybrid cros

Back 41

cross between 2 pure lines that differ in 2 observed traits

Front 42

incomplete dominance

Back 42

phenotype of heterozygous is between the two homozygous genetopes

Front 43

independent assortment

Back 43

two different traits are not dependent on each other

Front 44

mitochondrial inheritance

Back 44

transmission of mitochondrial inheritance from parent to child

Front 45

maternal inheritance

Back 45

traits passed down from mother to child

Front 46

pedigree

Back 46

diagram of family genetic history

Front 47

segregation

Back 47

during meiosis each gamete receives either maternal or paternal gene

Front 48

autosome

Back 48

chromosome that is not a sex chromosome

Front 49

epistasis

Back 49

genes that modify the expression of other genes

Front 50

genetic distance

Back 50

measure of genetic divergence

Front 51

linkage

Back 51

genes transmitted together in inheritance - don't sort independently

Front 52

linkage mapping

Back 52

map of genes in terms of recombination frequency

Front 53

non-recombinant type

Back 53

allele present in same combination as in the parents

Front 54

pleiotropy

Back 54

one gene effects multiple seemingly unrelated pheonotropic traits

Front 55

reciprocal cross

Back 55

pair of crosses between male of one strain, female of another strain, and vice versa

Front 56

recombinant type

Back 56

result of a crossover

Front 57

recombination

Back 57

crossing over of chromosomes

Front 58

sex-linkage

Back 58

genes located on the sex chromosome

Front 59

analogous

Back 59

similarities due to independent adaptation by different species

Front 60

ancestral trait

Back 60

trait shared by a group of organisms as a result of descent from a common ancestor

Front 61

convergent evolution

Back 61

independent evolution of similar features in species of different lineages

Front 62

derived trait

Back 62

traits existent in a present organism not present in their ancestors

Front 63

fitness

Back 63

measure of the extent to which an individual's genotype is represented in the next generation

Front 64

homologous

Back 64

characters that are similar because of descent from a common ancestor

Front 65

monophyletic group

Back 65

all share an ancestor not shared with any other species

Front 66

parsimony

Back 66

choosing the simpler hypothesis for a given set of observations

Front 67

polytomy

Back 67

an unresolved pattern of divergence, a node with multiple branches

Front 68

sister taxa

Back 68

share a MRCA, more closely related to each other than to any other group

Front 69

shared derived trait (synapomorphy)

Back 69

homology shared by some, but not all members of the group

Front 70

allele frequency

Back 70

number of alleles present in the population divided by the total number of alleles

Front 71

allele fixation

Back 71

all genes contain a particular allele

Front 72

balancing natural selection

Back 72

maintain 2 or more alleles in a population, maintain an allele between 0% and 100% (sickle cell)

Front 73

continuous (polygenic) trait

Back 73

variation occurs along a spectrum

Front 74

discrete trait

Back 74

clear alternative states (yellow/green peas)

Front 75

directional natural selection

Back 75

leads to a change in the trait over time, level of variation is the same

Front 76

disruptive natural selection

Back 76

in favor of extremes and against intermediates, mean stays the same, variability increases or stays the same

Front 77

genotype by environmental interactions

Back 77

phenotype result of interplay of genes and the environment

Front 78

heritability

Back 78

proportion of total variation in the trait that is due to genetic differences among individuals

Front 79

heterozygote advantage

Back 79

heterozygote fitness higher than either homozygote

Front 80

polygenic (quantitative) inheritance

Back 80

when many genes and environment affect a trait

Front 81

positive selection

Back 81

increases the frequency of a favorable gene

Front 82

relative fitness

Back 82

fitness of a genotype divided by fitness of maximum genotype

Front 83

negative selection

Back 83

decreases the frequency of a harmful allele

Front 84

stabilizing natural selection

Back 84

maintains the status quo and acts against extremes

Front 85

single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP)

Back 85

site in the genome where there is a base-pair difference among chromosomes that is common enough to be present in 1% of the population

Front 86

negative control

Back 86

no response is expected

Front 87

positive control

Back 87

a known response is expected