Exam 1

Front 1

levels of structural organization

chemical

Back 1

Atoms combine to form molecules

Front 2

Levels of structural organization

cellular

Back 2

cells are made up of molecules

example: smooth muscle

Front 3

Levels of structural organization

Tissue

Back 3

Consists of similar types of cells

example: smooth muscle

Front 4

Levels of structural organization

Organ

Back 4

Made up of different types of tissues

example; blood vessel- consists of epithelial tissue, smooth muscle tissue, and connective tissue

Front 5

metabolism

Back 5

all chemical reactions involved in maintaining the living state and the organism

Front 6

catabolism

Back 6

breaking down of things,

the metabolic break down of complex molecules in simpler ones, often resulting in the release of energy

Front 7

anabolism

Back 7

building up of things

the phase of metabolism in which simple substances are synthesized into the complex materials of living tissue.

Front 8

homeostasis

Back 8

ability to maintain a relatively stable internal environment in an ever changing outside world

Front 9

negative feedback

Back 9

the output shuts off the original stimulus

example: regulation of body temperature; if the body is to cold a signal is sent to the brain, the brain responds by telling the body to shiver to bring up the temperature.

Front 10

positive feedback

Back 10

the output enhances or exaggerates the original stimulus

example: woman in labor; baby pushes on cervics, signal sent to brain brain produces oxytosin causing baby to push harder; cycle repeats till baby is born

Front 11

dorsal cavity

Back 11

protects the nervous system, and is divided into two subdivisions

cranial cavity and vertebral cavity

Front 12

ventral cavity

Back 12

houses the internal organs and is divided into two subdivisions

thoracic and abdominal

Front 13

thoracic cavity

Back 13

subdivided into two pleural cavities, the mediastum, and the pericardial cavity

Front 14

pleural cavities

Back 14

each houses a lung

Front 15

mediastinum

Back 15

contains the pericardial cavity; surrounds the remaining thoracic organs

Front 16

pericardial cavity

Back 16

encloses the heart

Front 17

abdominopelvic cavity

Back 17

seperated from the superior thoracic cavity by the dome shaped diaphram

Front 18

abdominal cavity

Back 18

contains the stomach, intestines, spleen, liver, and other organs; contains the digestive visera

Front 19

pelvic cavity

Back 19

lies within the pelvis and contains the bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum

Front 20

parietal serosa / parietal pleaura

Back 20

lines the internal body walls

Front 21

visceral serosa / visceral pleaura

Back 21

covers the internal organs

Front 22

serous fluid

Back 22

separates the serousae

Front 23

peritoneum

Back 23

the serous membrane lining the walls of the abdomen and pelvic cavities, the two layers enclosing a potential space, the peritoneal cavity.

Front 24

cranial cavity

Back 24

contains the brain

Front 25

anatomical position

Back 25

body erect, feet slightly apart, palms facing forward, thumbs point away from the body

Front 26

homeostatic control mechanisms

Back 26

1. stimuli produces change in variable
2. change detected by receptor
3. input info sent along afferent pathway to control center
4. output info sent along efferent pathway to effector
5. response of effector feeds back to influence magnitude of stimuli and returns variable to homeostasis

Front 27

major elements of the human body

Back 27

O oxygen
C carbon
H hydrogen
N nitrogen

Front 28

Lesser trace elements of the human body

Back 28

Ca, P, K, S, Na, Cl, Mg, I, Fe

Front 29

atomic structure

Back 29

protons, neutrons, electrons

protons - positive charge
Neutrons- neutral charge
Electrons - negative charge

Front 30

isotopes

Back 30

atoms with the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons

Front 31

atomic number

Back 31

equal to the number of protons where the number of protons determines an element

Front 32

mass number

Back 32

equal to the mass of the protons and neutrons

Front 33

atomic weight

Back 33

average of the mass number of all isotopes

Front 34

molecule

Back 34

two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds

Front 35

compound

Back 35

two or more different kinds of atoms chemically bonded together

Front 36

ionic bonds

Back 36

charged atoms resulting from the gain or loss of electrons

complete transfer of electron

Front 37

anion

Back 37

have gained one or more electrons

Front 38

cations

Back 38

have lost one or more electrons

Front 39

covalent bond

Back 39

formed by the sharing of two or more electrons

Front 40

nonpolar molecules

Back 40

electrons shared equally between atoms

Front 41

polar molecules

Back 41

unequal sharing of electrons

Front 42

hydrogen bonds

Back 42

gives a molecule a three dimensional shape, too weak to bind atoms together

Front 43

chemical bonds

Back 43

form when chemical bonds are formed, rearranged, or broken

Front 44

oxidation reaction

Back 44

reactants losing electrons are electron donors and are oxidises

LEO

Front 45

reduction reaction

Back 45

reactants taking up electrons are electron acceptors and become reduced

GER

Front 46

exergonic reaction

Back 46

reaction that releases energy

Front 47

endergonic reaction

Back 47

reactions whose products contain more potential energy than did its reactants

Front 48

catalyst

Back 48

increase the rate of a reaction without being chemically changed

Front 49

enzymes

Back 49

biological catalysts

Front 50

organic compounds

Back 50

contain carbon, are covalently bonded, and are often large

Front 51

inorganic compounds

Back 51

do not contain carbon, water, salts, and many acids and bases

Front 52

properties of water

Back 52

-high heat capacity
-high heat of vaporization
-polar solvent properties
-reactivity
- cushioning

Front 53

salts

Back 53

inorganic compounds, contain cations other than H+ and anions other than OH-, are electrolytes; contain electrical currents, are a product of a reaction between acids and bases

Front 54

Neutralization reactions

Back 54

when a solution of an acid and that of a base are mixed

Front 55

acids

Back 55

release H+ and are proton donors

have a higher H+ and a lower pH

Front 56

bases

Back 56

release OH- and are proton acceptors

have a higher OH- and a higher pH

Front 57

buffers

Back 57

systems that resist abrupt and large swings in the pH of the body fluids

Front 58

carbohydrates

Back 58

contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen

major function is to supply a source of cellular food

Front 59

Monosaccharide

Back 59

glucose - simple sugar

Front 60

Disaccharide

Back 60

sucrose - double sugar

Front 61

Polysaccharide

Back 61

glycogen - polymers of simple sugars

Front 62

lipids

Back 62

contain C, H, O

examples: neutral fats, steroids, eicosanoids

Front 63

neutral fats

triglycerides

Back 63

composed of three fatty acids bonded to a glycerol molecule

Front 64

phospholipids

Back 64

modified triglycerides with two fatty acid group

chief component of the cell wall

Front 65

glycolipids

Back 65

modified triglycerides with a carbohydrate in place of the phosphorus group above

Front 66

essential fatty acid function

Back 66

help reduce inflammation, help with mood, help cellular signaling, activate and inhibit transcription

Front 67

steroids

Back 67

cholesterol, bile salts, vitamin D, sex hormones, adrenal cortical hormones

Front 68

eicosanoids

Back 68

20 carbon fatty acid found in cell membrains prostoglandins, leukotrienes, and thromboxanes are made from this

Front 69

structural levels of a protein

Back 69

Primary level
Secondary level
Tertiary Level
Quaternary Level

Front 70

protein denature

Back 70

-reversible or irreversible unfolding of proteins due to drop in pH and or increased temperature
-

Front 71

enzymes

Back 71

usually end in -ase
bind with substrate

Front 72

nucleic acid

Back 72

-composed of C, O, H, N, P
-structural unit is composed of N containing base, a pentose sugar, and a phosphate group
- five nitrogen bases contribute to the structure: A, G, C, T, U
- two major classes DNA and RNA

Front 73

DNA

Back 73

double stranded helical molecule found in the nucleus of the cell, replicates itself before the cell divides, provides instruction for protein synthesis

Front 74

RNA

Back 74

-single stranded molecule found in both the nucleus and the cytoplasm of a cell,
-uses the nitrogenous base uracil instead of thymine,
-three major varieties: messenger, transfer, and ribosomal

Front 75

plasma membrane

Back 75

-separates intracellular fluid from extracellular fluid
-plays a dynamic role in cellular activities
-contains glycocalyx
-20% of all membrane lipid is cholesterol

Front 76

functions of the integral membrane protein

Back 76

-intercellular adhesion
- cell-cell recognition
-attachment to cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix

Front 77

cell adhesion molecules

Back 77

-anchor cells to the extracellular matrix
-assists in movement of cells past one another
-rally protective white blood cells to injured or infected areas

Front 78

tight junction

Back 78

impermeable junction that encircles the cell

Front 79

desmosomes

Back 79

anchoring junction scattered along the sides of the cell

Front 80

gap junction

Back 80

a nexus that allows chemical substances to pass between cells

Front 81

cytoplasm

Back 81

material between plasma membrane and the nucleus

Front 82

inclusions

Back 82

chemical substances such as glycosomes, glycogen granual, and pigments

Front 83

mitochondroa

Back 83

provide most of the cells ATP

Front 84

Rough ER

Back 84

Manufactures all secreted proteins

Front 85

Ribosomes

Back 85

Site of protein synthesis

Front 86

Signal mechanism of protein synthesis

Back 86

-ribosome complex is directed to rough ER by a signal-recognition particle
-SRP is released and polypeptide grows into cisternae
-the protein is released into cisternea and sugar groups added
-the protein folds into a three dimensional conformation
-the protein is enclosed in a transport vesicle and moves toward the Golgi apparatus

Front 87

Smooth ER

Back 87

Catalyzes reactions in various organs of the body

Front 88

Golgi

Back 88

Functions in modification, concentration, and packaging of proteins

Front 89

lysosomes

Back 89

-digest ingested bacteria, viruses, and toxins
-degrade non functional organelles
-breakdown glycogen and release thyroid hormone

Front 90

peroxisomes

Back 90

Detoxify harmful or toxic substances

Front 91

cytoskeleton

Back 91

consists of microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments

Front 92

microtubules

Back 92

hollow tubes made of sperical protein tubulin. determine the overall shape of the cell and distribution of the organells

Front 93

microfilaments

Back 93

strands of actin filament, attaches to the cytoplasmic side of the plasma membrane, braces and strengthens the cell surface, attach to CAMs and function in endocytosis and exocytosis

Front 94

centrioles

Back 94

small barrel shaped organelles located in the centrosome near the nucleus,

-organize mitotic spindle during mitosis

Front 95

cilia

Back 95

whip like cellular extensions on exposed surfaces of certain cells

Front 96

nucleus

Back 96

contains nuclear envelope, nucleoli, chromatin, and distinct compartments rich in specific protein sets

gene containing control center of the cell

Front 97

nucleoli

Back 97

site of ribosome production

Front 98

simple diffusion

Back 98

-passive membrane diffusion
-non polar and lipid soluble substances
-diffuse directly through the lipid bilayer
-diffuse through channel proteins

Front 99

Facilitated diffusion

Back 99

-passive diffusion
-transport of glucose, amin acids, and ions
-transported substances bind carrier proteins or pass through protein channels

Front 100

carrier proteins

Back 100

-integral transmembrane proteins
-show specificity for certain polar molecules including sugars and amino acids

Front 101

diffusion

Back 101

movement of soluble substances from high concentration to a low concentration

Front 102

osmosis

Back 102

movement of water from waters high concentration to waters low concentration - semi permeable membrane is needed

Front 103

hypertonic

Back 103

cell shrinks

higher concentration is on the outside of the cell

Front 104

hypotonic

Back 104

cell explodes

higher concentration is on the inside of the cell

Front 105

isotonic

Back 105

equal distribution on both sides of the cell

Front 106

active transport

Back 106

uses ATP to move a solute across a membrane

requires carrier proteins

Front 107

symport system

Back 107

two substances are moving across a membrane in the same direction

Front 108

antiport system

Back 108

two substances are moving across a membrane in opposite directions

Front 109

transcytosis

Back 109

moving substances into, across, and then out of a cell

Front 110

vesicular trafficking

Back 110

moving substances from one area of the cell to another

Front 111

phagocytosis

Back 111

pseudopods engulf solids and bring them into the cells interior

Front 112

vesicular transport

Back 112

transport of large particles and macromolecules across plasma membranes

Front 113

membrane potential

Back 113

the setting up of an electrical chemical gradient: this is done by facilitated diffusion channels and the NaKATPase pump also called the NaK pump

Front 114

cell cycle

Back 114

-interphase: G1-S-G2
-Mitotic phase: Mitosis and cytokinesis
-interphase: G1-G0-S-G2

Front 115

mitosis

Back 115

nuclear division

- asexual form of cell division for growth and cellular replacement

Front 116

cytokinesis

Back 116

division of the cytoplasm

Front 117

Phases of mitosis

Back 117

Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase

Front 118

Prophase

Back 118

-asters are seen as chomatin condenses into chromosomes
-nucleoli disappear
-centriole pairs separate and the mitotic spindle is formed

Front 119

metaphase

Back 119

- chromasomes cluster at the middle of the cell with their centromeres aligned at the exact center, or equator of the cell
- this arrangement of chromosomes along a plane midway between the poles is called the petaphase plate

Front 120

anaphase

Back 120

-centromeres of the chromomes split
-motor proteins in kinetochores pull chromosomes toward poles

Front 121

telophase

Back 121

-new sets of chromosomes exstend into chromatin
-new nuclear membrane is formed from the rough ER
-nucleoli reappear
-generally cytokineses completes cell division

Front 122

protein synthesis

Back 122

- DNA serves as master blueprint
-genes are segments of DNA carrying instructions for a polypeptide chain
-triplets of nucleotide bases form the genetic library
-each triplet speficies coding for an amin acid

Front 123

transcription

Back 123

transfer of information from the sense strand of DNA to RNA

Front 124

messenger RNA

Back 124

carries the genetic information from DNA in the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm

Front 125

Transfer RNA

Back 125

bound to amino acids base pair with the codons of mRNA at the ribosomes to begin the process of protein synthesis

Front 126

ribosomal RNA

Back 126

a structural component of ribosomes

Front 127

simple cuboidal cells

Back 127

Line the ducts

found in the kidneys tubules, ducts, and secretory portions of the small glans and ovary surface

Front 128

simple columnar cells

Back 128

line the digestive tract, gallbladder, bronchi, uterine tubes, and some regions of the uterus

Front 129

pseudostratified

Back 129

nucleous at different levels

- found in the bronchial tract, trachea, respiratory tract

Front 130

epithelia

Back 130

made up of the cell that cover the outside of the body, simple squamous

used for diffusion, and fitration

Front 131

simple squamous cells

Back 131

single layer flattened cells

- present in the kidney, glomeruli, lining of the heart, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and serosae

Front 132

stratifies squamous

Back 132

non keratinized form the moist linings of the esaphagus, mouth and vagina

keratinized form the epidermis of the skin

Front 133

transitional cells

Back 133

line the urinary bladder, ureters, and part of the ureathra

stretches to permit the distention of the bladder

basel cells are cuboidal, surface cells are dome shaped

Front 134

glandular epithelia cell

Back 134

one or more cells that makes and secretes an aqueous fluid

Front 135

endocrine glands

Back 135

-ductless glands that produce hormones
-secretions include amino acids, proteins, glycoprotiens, and steroids

Front 136

exocrine Glands

Back 136

-secrete their products onto body surfaces of into body cavities

Front 137

Apocrine

Back 137

process where the apical portion of the secretory cell cytoplasm pinches off, found only in certain locations of the body: armpit, nipples, and the anal region

Front 138

eccrine

Back 138

the primary function is regularization

Front 139

merocrine

Back 139

products are secreted by exocytosis

exp; sweat, Salvidor glands, pancreas

Front 140

holocrine

Back 140

products are secreted by the rupture of glad cells, rupture of plasma membrane. thus releasing the cellular contents

Front 141

fibroblasts

Back 141

-connective tissue
-loose and dense connective tissue
-acts as a binding tissue, resists mechanical stress, particularly tension

Front 142

Chondroblasts

Back 142

-Cartilage
-Hyaline, fibrocartilage, elastic cartilage
-resists compression, cushions and supports body structure

Front 143

Osteoblast

Back 143

-Osseous (bone)
-Compact bone, spongy bone
-rigidness that resists compression and tension, support

Front 144

Hematopoietic stem cell

Back 144

-blood
-fluid tissue, transports oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, hormones, wastes

Front 145

connective tissue

Back 145

-mesenchyme as the origin
-varying degrees of vascularity
-ground substances, fibers, cells
-adhesion proteins, proteoglycans

Front 146

reticular fibers

Back 146

branched collagenous fibers that form delicate networks

Front 147

mesenchyme

Back 147

embryonic connective tissue, gives rise to all other connective tissues,

Front 148

areolar loose connective tissue

Back 148

-wraps and cushions organs
-fibroblasts, macrophages, mast cells, and some white blood cells

Front 149

adipose

Back 149

-stores food
-insulates the body
-found under the skin
-local fat

Front 150

reticular connective tissue

Back 150

-loose ground substance with reticular fibers
-lie in the fiber network
-forms a soft internal skeleton, or stoma, that supports other cell types
-found in lymph nodes, bone marrow, and the spleen

Front 151

dense regular connective tissue

Back 151

-parallel collagen fibers with few elastic fibers
-major cell type is fibroblasts
-attaches muscle to bone or to other muscles, and bone to bone
-found in tendons, ligaments, and aponeuroses

Front 152

dense irregular connective tissue

Back 152

-irregularly arranged collagen fibers with some elastic fibers
-major cell type is fibroblasts
-withstands tension in many directions providing structural strength
-found in the dermis, submucosa of the digestive tract, and fibrous organ capsules

Front 153

hyaline cartilage

Back 153

-chondrocytes lie in lacunae
-amourphous, firm matrix with imperceptible network of collagen fibers
-supports reinforces, cushions, and resists compression
-forms the costal cartilage
-found in the embriotic skeleton, the end of long bones, nose, trachea, and larynx

Front 154

elastic cartilage

Back 154

-similar to hyaline cartilage but with more elastic fibers
-maintains shape and structure wile allowing flexibility
-supports external ear and epiglottis

Front 155

fibrocartilage cartilage

Back 155

-matrix similar to hyaline cartilage but less firm with thick collagen fibers
-provides tensile strength and absorbs compression shock
-found in intervertibral discs, the pubic symphysis, and in discs of the knee joint

Front 156

bone

Back 156

-osteocytes are found in lacunae and are well vascularized
-supports, protects, and provides levers for muscular action
-stores calcium, minerals, and fat
-marrow inside is the site of hematopoiesis
-highly vascularized and innervated

Front 157

nervous tissue

Back 157

=branched neurons with long cellular processes and support cells
-transmit electrical signals from sensory receptors to effectors
-found in the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves

Front 158

astrocytes

Back 158

-most abundant, versatile, and highly branched glial cells
-cling to neurons and their synaptic endings, and cover capillaries
-support and brace neurons
-guide migration of young neurons
-control the chemical environement

Front 159

microglia

Back 159

-small, ovoid cells with spiny processes
-phagocytes that monitor the health of neurons

Front 160

oligodendrocytes

Back 160

-form the myelin sheaths in the central nervous system for maximum conduction velocity. the thickness of the myelin is strictly proportional

Front 161

skeletal muscle tissue

Back 161

-long, cylindrical, multinucleated cells with obvious striations
-initiates and controls voluntary movement
-found in skeletal muscles that attach to bones or skin

Front 162

cardiac muscle tissue

Back 162

-branching, striated, uninucleate cells interlocking at intercalated discs
- propels blood into circulation
-found in the walls of the heart

Front 163

smooth muscle tissue

Back 163

-sheets of spindle-shaped cells with central nuclei that have no striations
-propels substances along internal passageways (paristalsis)
-found in walls of hollow organs

Front 164

primary germ layer

Back 164

-ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm
-nerve tissue arises from ectoderm

Front 165

mesoderm

Back 165

muscle, connective tissue, endothelium, and mesothelium arise from
- epithelium of the kidneys and gonads, mesothelium lining of the pericardial, pleural, and paritoneal cavity, adreanal cortex

Front 166

endoderm

Back 166

most mucosa arise from
-resperatory system, digestive system, thyroid, parathyroid, thymus, anterior petuitary

Front 167

ectyderm

Back 167

-epidermis, cornea and lens of the eye, enamal, inner ear, nervous tissue