Reading...
Play button
Play button
Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
143 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
|
• Louis XV:
|
(1710-1774) was king of France form 1715 to 1774. His reign was marked by the decline of the prestige of the monarchy and the deepening of the crisis that eventually led to the French Revolution. He succeeded his grandfather, Louis XIV, at the age of five which techincally made France ruled by a regent for a period of time, resulting in crises such as the Missisipi Bubble (John Law) and renewed authority of the parlements.
|
|
|
• Louis XVI:
|
(1754-1793) was king of France from 1774 to 1792. He failed to understand the revolutionary forces at work in France and thus contributed to the fall of the monarchy. King Louis XVI of France was the unfortunate monarch executed during the 1789 French Revolution. He succeeded his grandfather, Louis XV, in 1774 and inherited a looming financial crisis just as democratic government was growing in popular and intellectual appeal.
|
|
|
• Marie Antoinette:
|
(1755-1793) was queen of France at the outbreak of the Revolution. Her activities and reputation contributed to the decline of the prestige of the French monarchy. (married to Louis XVI)
|
|
|
• Abbe Emmanuel Joseph Sieyes:
|
wrote What Is The Third Estate? in 1789. He was the spokesperson for the Third Estate and wanted to assert their position in the Estates General
|
|
|
• Maruis de Lafayette:
|
(1757–1834), French statesman and Revolutionary War general. The marquis de Lafayette was the most influential Frenchman in the early American republic. The prospect of military advancement and an affinity for republican principles drew the young cavalry captain to join the Continental army during the Revolutionary War.
|
|
|
• Jacques Louis David:
|
The French painter(1748-1825) was the leader of the neoclassic movement. His style set the artistic standards for many of his contemporaries and determined the direction of numerous 19th-century painters. (art includes: Andromache by the Body of Hector (1783), Antiochus Dying for the Love of Stratonice (1774), etc.)
|
|
|
• Maximilien Robespierre:
|
The French Revolutionary leader (1758-1794) was the spokesman for the policies of the dictatorial government that ruled France during the crisis brought on by civil and foreign war. He was an influential part in the Jacobin Club, which went against the Girondists. The dual crises of foreign war, in which most of Europe was now fighting against the Revolutionary government in France, and civil war, which threatened to overthrow that government, had led to the creation of the crisis machinery of government, the Reign of Terror. The central authority in this government was the Committee of Public Safety. Opposition against him grew and he was guillotined, leading to the Thermidorian Reaction.
|
|
|
• Edmund Burke:
|
The British statesman (1729-1797) was a noted political theorist and philosophical writer. He was born in Ireland, spent most of his active life in English politics, and died the political oracle of conservative Europe. Wrote Reflections on the Revolution in France. Condemned French administration reconstruction and forecast turmoil as people without experience tried to govern France
|
|
|
• Mary Wollstonecraft
|
: English writer (1759 - 1797) and her most famous work, "A Vindication of the Rights of Woman", both achieved immense notoriety in Georgian England of the 1790s. The book is considered the first written document of the modern feminist movement, and in it she argued in favor of full legal, social, and economic rights for women. Her achievements and renown, however, could not save her from the most dangerous of all social ills for women in her day - that of childbirth and its attendant medical risks. She died several days after giving birth to her daughter.
|
|
|
• Olympe de Gouges:
|
French author and activist (1748-1793) achieved modest success as a play wright in the 18th century, but she became best known for her political writing and support of the French Revolution. Considered a feminist pioneer, was an advocate of women's rights. Her most famous work was "The Declaration of the Rights of Woman", (1791). Even in revolutionary France, feminist ideas were considered radical. In 1793, she was executed for crimes against the government.
|
|
|
• Georges Jacques Danton:
|
The French statesman Georges (1759-1794) was a leader during the French Revolution. Called the "orator of the streets," he was themost prominent early defender of popular liberties and the republican spirit. He was executed under Robespierre’s rule because he was an extreme san-cullote (enrages) He was accused of being insufficiently militant on the war, profiting from the revolutoin, and rejecting the link between politics and moral virtue.
|
|
|
• Jacques Roux:
|
French revolutionary. A priest in Paris, he abandoned the priesthood at the start of the French Revolution. He was a member of the Commune of Paris of Aug., 1792. As a leader of the enragés in the Paris sections, he helped to instigate (Feb. and Mar., 1793) food riots in Paris. He was arrested in Sept., 1793, was condemned by the Revolutionary Tribunal, and committed suicide (Jan., 1794).
|
|
|
• Napoleon Bonaparte:
|
(1769-1821), emperor of the French, ranks as one of the greatest military conquerors in history. Through his conquests he remade the map of Europe, and through his valuable administrative and legal reforms he promoted the growth of liberalism. He rose swiftly through the ranks of army and government during and after the French Revolution and crowned himself emperor in 1804. He conquered much of Europe but lost two-thirds of his army in a disastrous invasion of Russia. After his final loss to Britain and Prussia at the Battle of Waterloo, he was exiled to the island of St. Helena in the south Atlantic Ocean.
|
|
|
• Pope Pius VII:
|
(1740-1823), who was pope from 1800 to 1823, began his reign with some sympathy for the liberal goals of the French Revolution, but under Napoleon he withdrew to a conservatism more consistent with the traditions of his Church. Signed the Concordat of 1801 which stated that Roman Catholicism was the religion of most Frenchmen, implying thereby that other religions would be tolerated. It further provided that the French clergy would be paid by the state, thereby tacitly closing the door to any hope that the property confiscated from the Church during the Revolution would be returned.
|
|
|
Lord Nelson/Horatio Nelson:
|
• The English admiral and naval , He (1758-1805), was noted for his bravery and for his victories, including the decisive Battle of Trafalgar. He ranks as the last great naval hero of a proud seafaring nation.
|
|
|
• Louis XVIII:
|
(1755-1824), the restored Bourbon king of France, reigned from 1814 to 1824. By taste and education he was a child of the Enlightenment: skeptical, secular, witty, and steeped in Voltaire.
|
|
|
• James Hargreaves:
|
(1765) invented the spinning jenny which allowed multiple numbers of spindles of thread to be spun at one time. (industrial revolution of the 1700s)
|
|
|
• Edmund Cartwright:
|
(late 1780s) invented the power loom for machine weavers.
|
|
|
• James Watt:
|
The British instrument maker and engineer (1736-1819) developed an efficient steam engine which was a universal source of power and thereby provided one of the most essential technological components of the early industrial revolution.
|
|
|
• James Nasmyth:
|
(1808-1890) was an inventor and contributed greatly to the inventions of power tools, most notably the steam hammer
|
|
|
• Henry Cort:
|
The English ironmaster (1740-1800) made possible the large-scale and inexpensive conversion of cast iron into wrought iron, one of the most essential materials of the early industrial revolution.
|
|
|
• George Stephenson
|
: invented the locomotive in 1814.
|
|
|
• Joseph M. W. Turner:
|
The English painter (1775-1851) was one of the greatest romantic interpreters of nature in the history of Western art and is still unrivaled in the virtuosity of his painting of light. The English painter (1775-1851) was one of the greatest romantic interpreters of nature in the history of Western art and is still unrivaled in the virtuosity of his painting of light. (art includes: Hannibal Crossing the Alps (1812), The Shipwreck (1805), etc.)
|
|
|
• Claude Monet:
|
The French painter (1840-1926) was the seminal figure in the evolution of impressionism, a pivotal style in the development of modern art. (art includes: Impression: Sunrise (1872), Spring Trees By A Lake (1888), etc. )
|
|
|
• Thomas Malthus:
|
(1766-1835) Author of an Essay on the Principles of Population in 1798 postulating that any temporary or local improvement in living conditions will increase population faster than the food supply, and that disasters such as war and pestilence, which check population growth, are inescapable features of human society.
|
|
|
• David Ricardo:
|
The English economist(1772-1823) was a founder of political economy. His economics armed reformers attacking the agricultural aristocracy's political, social, and economic privileges. Author of Principles of Political Economy (1817) where he stated that raised wages would lead to more childrenmore enter labor marketlowered wagesfewer children. An ongoing cycle and wages would always stay on a min. level.
|
|
|
• Friedrich List:
|
The German economist (1789-1846) originated the historical theory of economic growth. Supported the Zollverein (free trading union) in Germany. (1834)
|
|
|
• Honore Daumier:
|
(1808-1879) was a French lithographer, painter, and sculptor. A romantic realistin style, he produced caricatures that are abiding commentaries on politics and social manners.
|
|
|
• William Blake:
|
(1757-1827) was an English poet, engraver, and painter. A boldly imaginative rebel in both his thought and his art, he combined poetic and pictorial genius to explore important issues in politics, religion, and psychology.
|
|
|
• William Wordsworth:
|
(1770-1850), an early leader of romanticism in English poetry, ranks as one of the greatest lyric poets in the history of English literature. (ex. Descriptive Sketches and An Evening Walk (1793))
|
|
|
• Friedrich Engels:
|
The German revolutionist and social theorist (1820-1895) was the cofounder with Karl Marx of modern socialism. (Communist Manifesto with Marx) \ moved from Germany to England in 1842, where he worked as a manager in a factory. In 1845 he published The Condition of the Working Class in England, which suggested that the poor working class would only benefit if they fought for socialism. \had met Karl Marx in 1844 and together they wrote the Communist Manifesto, predicting ultimate victory for the proletariat. After 1848 He returned to England and financially supported Marx, whose works he also edited and translated.
|
|
|
• Karl Marx:
|
The German philosopher, radical economist, and revolutionary leader(1818-1883) founded modern "scientific" socialism. His basic ideas - known as Marxism - form the foundation of socialist and communist movements throughout the world.(Communist Manifestow with Engels) He studied law and philosophy, and was initially influenced by the works of G. W. F. Hegel. He rejected the idealism of Hegel and developed a more materialistic theory of history as science, ultimately predicting that the triumph of the working class was inevitable. With his collaborator Friedrich Engels, He published the Communist Manifesto in 1848. Exiled from Europe, He lived in London, England and earned money through contributions to various newspapers, including the New York Tribune. He devoted the last decades of his life to working on Das Kapital, and was active in early communist organizations. His work greatly influenced modern socialism, and he is considered one of the founders of economic history and sociology.
|
|
|
• Robert Owen:
|
The attempts of the British socialist pioneer (1771-1858) to reconstruct society widely influenced social experimentation and the cooperative movement. Welsh social reformer. He is best remembered as a campaigner against the abuses of the industrial revolution, and for the model cotton factory he set up in New Lanark. In political philosophy he was an early advocate of communal ownership of the means of production by workers' co-operatives rather than the State.
|
|
|
• Prince Klemens von Metternich:
|
(1773-1859), Austrian politician and diplomat, suppressed nationalistic and democratic trends in Central Europe but was also the architect of a diplomatic system which kept Europe at peace for a century. Austrian nobleman and political leader of the early nineteenth century; he was chancellor, or head, of the Austrian government for nearly forty years. Through his leadership at the Congress of Vienna and elsewhere, restored order in Europe after the fall of the French emperor Napoleon Bonaparte. He did so, however, to the advantage of the European kings and princes and at the expense of movements toward democracy in Europe.
|
|
|
• Robert Castlereagh:
|
(1769-1822), • : The British statesman as foreign secretary did much to consolidate a firm final international alliance against Napoleon and to establish the framework for a remarkably durable European peace settlement. Considered one of the most distinguished foreign secretaries in British history, he played a leading role in bringing together the Grand Alliance that overthrew Napoleon and in deciding the form of the peace settlements at the Congress of Vienna. Beset with paranoia and believing that he was being blackmailed, he eventually committed suicide.
|
|
|
Adam Smith
|
The Scotch economist and moral philosopher He (1723-1790) believed that in a laissez-faire economy the impulse of self-interest would work toward the public welfare. Author of The Wealth of Nations (1776) which states his support for a theory of human and eceonomic development in the four stage theory. Humans are classified as hunting and gathering, pastoral or herding, agricultural, or commercial. Which is basically a process of arbarianismcivilizaition.
|
|
|
• Giuseppe Mazzini:
|
The Italian patriot(1805-1872) devoted his life to achieving liberty and unity for Italy. He placed the skill of his pen at the service of a vigorous republicanism. In 1834, whilst in exile in London, he established a Young Europe movement, to foster nationalist movements throughout the continent, particularly in Italy, Germany, and Poland; and was described by John Stuart Mill as ‘the most eminent conspirator and revolutionist now in Europe’. Following the 1848 uprisings, he briefly headed a republican government in Rome, but was forced back into exile. He viewed the unification of Italy in 1861 with some disillusionment, as it failed to live up to his democratic or republican ideals.
|
|
|
• Comte de Saint-Simon:
|
The French social philosopher and reformer (1760-1825), was one of the founders of modern industrial socialism and evolutionary sociology. A founding father of both modern social science and socialism, and an important figure in nineteenth-century utopianism. He was concerned mainly with the causes and consequences of social and political upheaval in the age of the French Revolution, and sought to address the complex questions of the future direction of European society in the aftermath of the collapse of feudalism and the old monarchical, aristocratic, and Roman Catholic structures of the eighteenth century. His originality lay in his emphasis on the modernizing forces of science, industry, and technological innovation, and he spent the last twenty-five years of his life trying to convince his contemporaries of the need to adapt social and political systems to those new forces.
|
|
|
• Louis Blanc:
|
The French journalist, historian, and socialist politician (1811-1882) greatly influenced the evolution of French socialism and modern social democracy. French utopian socialist and journalist. In 1839 he founded the socialist newspaper Revue du Progrès and serially published his The Organization of Labour, which described his theory of worker-controlled "social workshops" that would gradually take over production until a socialist society came into being. He was a member of the provisional government of the Second Republic (1848) but was forced to flee to England after workers unsuccessfully revolted. In exile (1848 – 70), he wrote a history of the French Revolution and other political works.
|
|
|
• Charles Fourier:
|
The French socialist writer (1772-1837) was the prophet of a utopian human society. He advocated a reconstruction of society based on communal associations of producers known as phalanges (phalanxes). His system became known as Fourierism. He felt that phalanges would distribute wealth more equitably than would capitalism and that they would contribute both to a cooperative lifestyle and to individual self-fulfillment.
|
|
|
• Theodore Gericault:
|
The French painter(1791-1824), by virtue of his subject matter and style, is generally considered the first true romanticist. In his short career he established the most viable direction for the immediate future of painting. (ex. Raft of Medusa: 1817)
|
|
|
• John Constable:
|
(1776-1837), one of the greatest English landscape painters, represented the naturalistic aspect of romanticism. His calm, deeply poetic response to nature approximated in painting the insights of William Wordsworth in poetry. (ex. The Hay Wain: 1824)
|
|
|
• Samuel Taylor Coleridge:
|
The English author (1772-1834) was a major poet of the romantic movement. He is also noted for his prose works on literature, religion, and the organization of society. (Ex. Lay Sermons: 1817)
|
|
|
• Johann Wolfgang Von Goethe:
|
The German poet, dramatist, novelist, and scientist (1749-1832), who embraced many fields of human endeavor, ranks as the greatest of all German poets. Of all modern men of genius, Goethe is the most universal. (Ex. Marienbader Elegie (1822))
|
|
|
• Walter Scott:
|
(not in book)(15 August 1771 – 21 September 1832) was a prolific Scottish historical novelist and poet popular throughout Europe during his time. Famous works include Ivanhoe, Rob Roy, and Lady of the Lake. He was one of the first to truly have an international career.
|
|
|
• Victor Hugo
|
: (1802-1885) was a French poet, playwright, novelist, essayist, visual artist, statesman, human rights activist and exponent of the Romantic movement in France, the most important of all French Romantic writers. his best-known works are the novels Les Misérables and Notre-Dame de Paris or the Hunchback of Notre Dame.
|
|
|
• Frederic Chopin:
|
Polish composer and virtuoso pianist of the Romantic period. He is widely regarded as one of the world's great composers. He wrote pieces mainly designed for the piano.
|
|
|
• Eugene Delacroix:
|
(26 April 1798 – 13 August 1863) was a French Romantic artist regarded from the outset of his career as the leader of the French Romantic school.[1] his use of expressive brushstrokes and his study of the optical effects of color profoundly shaped the work of the Impressionists, while his passion for the exotic inspired the artists of the Symbolist movement. A fine lithographer, he illustrated various works of William Shakespeare, the Scottish writer Sir Walter Scott and the German writer Johann Wolfgang von Goethe.
|
|
|
• Franz Liszt:
|
(1811-1886) was a Hungarian composer, virtuoso pianist and teacher. he became renowned throughout Europe for his great skill as a performer during the 19th century. He represented the Neudeutsche Schule ("New German School”). He invented of the symphonic poem, developed the concept of thematic transformation as part of his experiments in musical form and made radical departures in harmony.
|
|
|
• Nicolo Paganini:
|
(October 27, 1782 – May 27, 1840) was an Italian violinist, violist, cellist, guitarist, and composer. His caprice in A minor, Op. 1 No. 24 is among his best known compositions, and serves as inspiration for other prominent artists from Johannes Brahms to Sergei Rachmaninoff.
|
|
|
• Ludwig Van Beethoven:
|
was a German composer and pianist. He was a crucial figure in the transitional period between the Classical and Romantic eras in Western classical music, and remains one of the most acclaimed and influential composers of all time.
|
|
|
• Germaine de Stael:
|
French-Swiss writer, woman of letters, early champions of women's right, who was considered among Napoléon's major opponents, and spent much of her life in exile. However, she did not only gain fame with her books or her salon for leading intellectuals, but with her numerous affairs. As a writer Mme de Staël made her breakthrough with Lettres sur les ouvrages et le caractère de J.-J. Rousseau (1788), which expressed her deep admiration of the great thinker. She supported Rousseau's idea that passionate love is natural to human beings and to yield oneself to love will not result in abandoning virtue. She was Necker’s daughter.
|
|
|
• Charles X of France
|
: (r. 1824-1830) (p.681-2) his first action was to have the Chamber of Deputies to indemnify aristocrats who had lost their lands in the revolution in 1824 & 1825. He lowered the interest rates on gov. bonds to create a fund to pay an annual sum to the survivors of the émigrés who had forfeited land. HE restored the rule of primogeniture. He appointed a less conservative ministry. He issued the Four Ordinances which restricted freedom of the press, dissolved the recently elected Chamber of Deputies, limited the franchise to the wealthiest people, and called for new elections. He abdicated on Aug. 2 and exiled in England
|
|
|
• Louis Philippe:
|
(1773-1850) (682, 705, 712) “King of the French” His new monarchy was called the July Monarchy. He replaced the flag of the Bourbons w/ the tricolor flag of the revolution. Catholicism was the main religion. Censorship was abolished. He ignored the demands of the workers. He had many liberal political opponents and his regime was very corrupt.
|
|
|
• Francis Joseph, emperor of Austria:
|
(717, 746-7) (r. 1848-1916) He reacted to events, but rarely commanded them. His ministers tried to imposed a centralized administration on the empire. The system amounted to a military and bureaucratic regime dominated by German-speaking Austrians. Internal tariffs were abolished. He issued the October Diploma which created a federation among the states and provinces of the empire. He issued the February Patent which established a bicameral imperial parliament or Reichsrat with an upper chamber appointed by the emperor and an indirectly elected lower chamber. Magyars refused to participate. He finally came to terms with the Magyars with secret negotiations. He was king of Hungary after the Ausgleich or Compromise of 1867 transformed Habsburg Emp. Into a dual monarchy.
|
|
|
• Nicholas I of Russia:
|
(679, 680, 717, 732) Russian emperor (1825–55), often considered the personification of classic autocracy; for his reactionary policies, he has been called the emperor who froze Russia for 30 years. The new regime became preeminently one of militarism and bureaucracy. The army had to take an oath of allegiance to him. He turned his back on all reforms. He had an autocracy, which meant he had unrestrained power of Russia. He stopped the Decembrist Revolt.
|
|
|
• King Frederick William of Prussia I:
|
(441-2) (1713-40)Great Elector,contributions to the state of Prussia primarily consisted of civil service reforms, developing the international reputation of the Prussian military, and increasing the overall efficiency and discipline of his military, which in turn placed Prussia as an entity on a par with Early Modern France, the Kingdom of Great Britain, and other politically dominant states in Europe during the 18th century. He replaced mandatory military service among the middle class with an annual tax, established primary schools, and resettled East Prussia (which had been devastated by the plague in 1709). Frederick William was an extremely able administrator. He opposed all superfluous spending, so long as it did not concern his army. he paid the consumer tax he himself had imposed
|
|
|
• King Frederick William of Prussia II:
|
(442-3) He was known as Frederick the Great. (r. 1740-86) He upset the Pragmatic Sanction and invaded Silesia. He crystallized the Austrian-Prussian rivalry for the control of Germany.
|
|
|
• King Frederick William III of Prussia
|
(637, 665) He had promised some sort of constitutional gov. He formally reneged this. He created a new Council of State, although it improved administrative efficiency, was responsible only to him. He moved further from reform. He established eight provincial estates/diets. These were dominated by the Junkers.
|
|
|
• King Frederick William of Prussia IV:
|
(719, 738) King of Prussia from 1840 until 1861, whose conservative policies helped spark the Revolution of 1848. In the aftermath of the failed revolution, Frederick William followed a reactionary course. In 1857 he was incapacitated by a stroke, and his brother, the future William I, became regent (1858–61).
|
|
|
• Edwin Chadwick
|
: (1800-90) (669-70) He wrote the Report on the Sanitary Conditions of the Labouring Population. These talked about the issues of wretched living conditions and public health. It argued that sanitary reform would remove the dangers. It had best information on working class living conditions in the mid-19th cc
|
|
|
• Jeremy Bentham:
|
(705) (1748-1832) He had utilitarian thoughts. He sought to create codes of scientific law that were founded on the principle of utility, the greatest happiness for the greatest number. In his Fragment on Government and The Principle of Morals and Legislation, he explained the application of principle of utility would overcome the special interests of privileged groups who prevented rational government.
|
|
|
• Louis Pasteur:
|
(770)(1882-1895) in France. Full acceptance of the bacterial theory of disease associated with his discoveries increased public concern about cleanliness.
|
|
|
• Joseph Lister:
|
(1827-1912) was an English surgeon who promoted the idea of sterile surgery while working at the Glasgow Royal Infirmary. He successfully introduced carbolic acid (phenol) to sterilize surgical instruments and to clean wounds.
|
|
|
• Napoleon III:
|
(20 April 1808 – 9 January 1873) was the first President of the French Republic and the only emperor of the Second French Empire. The dictatorship persisted until 1860. During the dictatorship, Napoleon limited the freedom of the press and the freedom of intellectual thought; he censored newspapers and exiled many writers, including Victor Hugo, banning their works. During this period, opposition began to mount and Napoleon was forced to limit his powers. After 1860, Louis Napoleon began a series of liberal reforms that culminated in a limited monarchy, the Liberal Empire, on January 2, 1870. This liberalization was marked by labor legislation, a movement toward free trade, and a revival of opposition parties. In 1868 he granted freedom of assembly and loosened restrictions on the press. Napoleon also greatly extended the French railways and tried to improve the conditions of poor people. Perhaps Napoleon III's most durable work was the reconstruction of Paris, overseen by urban planner Baron Haussmann.
|
|
|
• Georges Haussmann:
|
(768) He was appointed by Napoleon III to oversee a vast urban reconstruction program for Paris. Whole districts were destroyed to open way for broad boulevards and streets.
|
|
|
• Henri De Toulouse-Lautrec:
|
was a French painter, printmaker, draftsman, and illustrator, whose immersion in the colourful and theatrical life of fin de siècle Paris yielded an oeuvre of exciting, elegant and provocative images of the modern and sometimes decadent life of those times. Toulouse-Lautrec is known along with Cézanne, Van Gogh, and Gauguin as one of the greatest painters of the Post-Impressionist period
|
|
|
• Gustave Droz:
|
French man of letters, son of the sculptor J. A. Droz (1807-1872), was born in Paris. He was educated as an artist, and began to exhibit in the Salon of 1857. A series of sketches dealing gaily and lightly with the intimacies of family life, published in the Vie parisienne and issued in book form as Monsieur, Madame et Bb (1866), won for the author an immediate and great success.
|
|
|
• Feodor Dostoevski:
|
(1821-1881) was a Russian fiction writer, essayist, and philosopher whose works include Crime and Punishment and The Brothers Karamazov. Dostoyevsky is considered to be one of Europe's major novelists. His literary output explores human psychology in the troubled political, social and spiritual context of 19th-century Russian society. Considered by many as a founder or precursor of 20th century existentialism, his Notes from Underground (1864), written in the embittered voice of the anonymous "underground man", was called by Walter Kaufmann the "best overture for existentialism ever written."
|
|
|
• Sigmund Freud:
|
an Austrian psychiatrist who founded the psychoanalytic school of psychology.[1] is best known for his theories of the unconscious mind and the defense mechanism of repression and for creating the clinical practice of psychoanalysis for curing psychopathology through dialogue between a patient and a psychoanalyst. is also renowned for his redefinition of sexual desire as the primary motivational energy of human life, as well as his therapeutic techniques, including the use of free association, his theory of transference in the therapeutic relationship, and the interpretation of dreams as sources of insight into unconscious desires. He was also an early neurological researcher into cerebral palsy.
|
|
|
• Auguste Comte:
|
17 January 1798 – 5 September 1857) was a French philosopher, one of the founders of sociology (from the Latin: socius, "companion"; and the suffix -ology, "the study of", from Greek λόγος, lógos, "knowledge"[1]) and positivism. He is responsible for the coining and introduction of the term altruism
|
|
|
• Jean Baptiste Lamarck:
|
usually known as Lamarck, (1 August 1744 – 18 December 1829) was a French soldier, naturalist, academic and an early proponent of the idea that evolution occurred and proceeded in accordance with natural laws. In the modern era, Lamarck is remembered mainly for a theory of inheritance of acquired characters, called soft inheritance or Lamarckism. Lamarck's contribution to evolutionary theory consisted of the first truly cohesive theory of evolution
|
|
|
• Charles Darwin:
|
1809–1882 was an English naturalist[I] who realised and presented compelling evidence that all species of life have evolved over time from common ancestors, through the process he called natural selection. The fact that evolution occurs became accepted by the scientific community and much of the general public in his lifetime, while his theory of natural selection came to be widely seen as the primary explanation of the process of evolution in the 1930s and now forms the basis of modern evolutionary theory. In modified form, Darwin’s scientific discovery is the unifying theory of the life sciences, providing logical explanation for the diversity of life
|
|
|
• Emile Zola:
|
1840-1902 was an influential French writer, the most important exemplar of the literary school of naturalism, an important contributor to the development of theatrical naturalism, and a major figure in the political liberalization of France and in the exoneration of the falsely accused and convicted army officer Alfred Dreyfus. Émile Zola's "J'accuse" accused the highest levels of the French Army of obstruction of justice and antisemitism by having wrongfully convicted a Jewish artillery captain, Alfred Dreyfus, to life imprisonment on Devil's Island in French Guiana. Zola declared that Dreyfus' conviction and removal to an island prison came after a false accusation of espionage and was a miscarriage of justice
|
|
|
• Honore De Balzac
|
: 20 May 1799 – 18 August 1850) was a French novelist and playwright. His magnum opus was a sequence of almost 100 novels and plays collectively entitled La Comédie humaine, which presents a panorama of French life in the years after the fall of Napoléon Bonaparte in 1815. Due to his keen observation of detail and unfiltered representation of society, Balzac is regarded as one of the founders of realism in European literature. He is renowned for his multi-faceted characters; even his lesser characters are complex, morally ambiguous and fully human
|
|
|
• Gustave Flaubert:
|
(December 12, 1821 – May 8, 1880) was a French writer who is counted among the greatest Western novelists. He is known especially for his first published novel, Madame Bovary (1857), and for his scrupulous devotion to his art and style.George Eliot: real name= Mary Anne. Eliot was her pen name. She was one of the leading writers of the Victorian era. Her novels, largely set in provincial England, are well known for their realism and psychological insight. She used a male pen name, she said, to ensure that her works were taken seriously
|
|
|
• Leo Tolstoy:
|
1828-1910 was a Russian writer widely regarded as one of the greatest novelists of all time. His masterpieces, War and Peace and Anna Karenina, represent the peak of realist fiction in their scope, breadth and vivid depiction of 19th-century Russian life and mind. Tolstoy's further talents as essayist, dramatist, and educational reformer made him the most influential member of the aristocratic Tolstoy family.
|
|
|
• Giuseppe Garibaldi:
|
1807-1882 was an Italian military and political figure. In his twenties, he joined the Carbonari Italian patriot revolutionaries, and had to flee Italy after a failed insurrection. He then contributed to the independence of Uruguay, leading the Italian Legion in the Uruguayan Civil War, and afterwards returned to Italy as a commander in the conflicts of the Risorgimento
|
|
|
• Camillo Di Cavour:
|
was a leading figure in the movement toward Italian unification. He was the founder of the original Italian Liberal Party and Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, a position he maintained (except for a six-month resignation) throughout the Second Italian War of Independence and Garibaldi's campaigns to unite Italy. Cavour died only three months after the declaration of a united Kingdom of Italy, and thus did not live to see Venetia or Rome included in the kingdom. Cavour, as he is usually called, put forth several economic reforms in his home province of Piedmont in his earlier years, and founded the political newspaper Il Risorgimento. After being elected to the Chamber of Deputies, he quickly rose in rank through the Piedmontese government, coming to dominate the Chamber of Deputies through a union of left-center and right-center politicians. After a large rail system expansion program, Cavour became prime minister in 1852
|
|
|
• Otto von Bismarck:
|
1815-1898 was a Prussian German statesman and aristocrat of the 19th century. As Minister-President of Prussia from 1862–1890, he oversaw the unification of Germany. In 1867 he became Chancellor of the North German Confederation. When the second German Empire was formed in 1871, he served as its first Chancellor until 1890 and practiced Realpolitik, which gained him the nickname "The Iron Chancellor". As Chancellor, Bismarck held an important role in the German government and greatly influenced German and international politics both during and after his time of service.
|
|
|
• Alexander II of Russia:
|
Alexander the Liberator Encouraged by public opinion he began a period of radical reforms, including an attempt to not to depend on a landed aristocracy controlling the poor, to develop Russia's natural resources and to thoroughly to reform all branches of the administration. he maintained a generally liberal course at the helm while being a target for numerous assassination attempts. He emancipated the serfs from serfdom. He reorganized the army and the navy. He suppressed national movements
|
|
|
• Alexander III of Russia:
|
(1845-1894) was emperor of Russia from 1881 to 1894. During his autocratic reign Russian absolutism asserted itself for the last time. He thus opposed representative government and ardently supported Russian nationalism. His political ideal was a nation containing a single nationality, language, religion, and form of administration, and accordingly he instituted programs such as the Russification of national minorities in the Russian Empire and the persecution of non-Orthodox religious groups.
|
|
|
• Sergei Witte:
|
He improved communications, promoted construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway, and planned to modernize the Russian Empire. He represented Russia in the negotiations that ended the Russo-Japanese War. Although opposed to constitutionalism, he persuaded Tsar Nicholas II to issue the October Manifesto in 1905 and was appointed the first constitutional premier. He organized the repression of all the forces of disruption in 1905 – 06 — e.g., the St. Petersburg Soviet, or workers' council, the troop mutinies in the Far East, strikes in South Russia, and peasant uprisings in the Baltic provinces — and he concluded arrangements with European bankers for a series of loans that restored Russian finances
|
|
|
• Nicholas II of Russia:
|
He was an autocratic but indecisive ruler and was devoted to his wife, Alexandra, who strongly influenced his rule. His interest in Asia led to construction of the Trans-Siberian Railroad and also helped cause the disastrous Russo-Japanese War (1904 – 05). After the Russian Revolution of 1905, he agreed reluctantly to a representative Duma but restricted its powers and made only token efforts to enact its measures. His prime minister, Pyotr Stolypin, attempted reforms, but Nicholas, increasingly influenced by Alexandra and Grigory Rasputin, opposed him. After Russia suffered setbacks in World War I, Nicholas ousted the popular grand duke Nicholas as commander in chief of Russian forces and assumed command himself, at the bidding of Alexandra and Rasputin. His absence from Moscow and Alexandra's mismanagement of the government caused increasing unrest and culminated in the Russian Revolution of 1917. Nicholas abdicated in March 1917
|
|
|
• Emperor William II: King of England
|
(1087 – 1100) and de facto duke of Normandy (1096 – 1100). He inherited England from his father, William I (the Conqueror), and quelled a rebellion (1088) by barons loyal to his brother Robert II. A tyrannical ruler, he brutally punished the leaders of a second revolt (1095). He forced St. Anselm, archbishop of Canterbury, to leave England and seized his lands (1097). He reduced the Scottish kings to vassals (1093), subjugated Wales (1097), and waged war on Normandy (1089 – 96), gaining control when Robert mortgaged the duchy.
|
|
|
• Captain Alfred Dreyfus:
|
He was assigned to the war ministry when, in 1894, he was accused of selling military secrets to Germany. He was convicted and sentenced to life imprisonment on Devil's Island. The legal proceedings, based on insufficient evidence, were highly irregular, but public opinion and the French press, led by its virulently anti-Semitic section, welcomed the verdict. Doubts began to grow as evidence came out suggesting that C.F. Esterhazy (1847 – 1923) was the true traitor. The movement for revision of Dreyfus's trial gained momentum when Émile Zola wrote an open letter under the headline "J'Accuse," accusing the army of covering up its errors in making the case. After a new court-martial (1899) again found Dreyfus guilty, he was pardoned by the president of the republic in an effort to resolve the issue.
|
|
|
• John Stuart Mill:
|
in 1823 he cofounded the Utilitarian Society with Jeremy Bentham, though he would later significantly modify the utilitarianism he inherited from Bentham and his father to meet the criticisms it encountered. In the 1840s he published his great systematic works in logic and political economy, chiefly A System of Logic (2 vol., 1843) and Principles of Political Economy (2 vol., 1848). As head of the examiner's office in India House from 1856 to 1858 he wrote a defense of the company's government of India when the transfer of its powers was proposed. In 1859 he published On Liberty, a trenchant defense of individual freedom. His Utilitarianism (1863) is a closely reasoned attempt to answer objections to his ethical theory and to address misconceptions about it; he was especially insistent that "utility" include the pleasures of the imagination and the gratification of the higher emotions and that his system include a place for settled rules of conduct.
|
|
|
• Benjamin Disraeli
|
: British politician and author who was twice prime minister; He first made his mark as a writer with Vivian Grey (1826 – 27). He was elected to Parliament as a Conservative in 1837. In 1845 he made speeches against Sir Robert Peel's decision to repeal the Corn Laws, which helped him to become leader of the Conservatives. He served three stints as chancellor of the Exchequer (and played a prominent role in passing the Reform Bill of 1867. He was prime minister briefly in 1868, then returned in his second ministry (1874 – 80) to promote social reform. An advocate of a strong foreign policy, he secured a triumph for imperial prestige with his acquisition of Suez Canal shares and won concessions for England at the Congress of Berlin
|
|
|
• William Gladstone:
|
He entered Parliament in 1833 as a Tory, but after holding various government posts, including chancellor of the Exchequer (1852 – 55, 1859 – 66), he slowly converted to liberalism and became Liberal Party leader in 1866. In his first term as prime minister (1868 – 74), he oversaw national education reform, voting reform (see Ballot Act), and the disestablishment of the Irish Protestant church (1869). In 1875 – 76 he denounced the indifference of Benjamin Disraeli's government to the Bulgarian Horrors. In his second term, he secured passage of the Reform Bill of 1884. He devoted the next six years to trying to convince the electorate to grant Home Rule to Ireland.
|
|
|
• Dr. Karl Lueger:
|
Austrian politician. He was elected to the Vienna city council (1875) and to the Austrian parliament (1885), and he cofounded the Christian Social Party (1889). He effectively used the prevalent anti-Semitic and German nationalist currents in Vienna to advance his political objectives. He was elected mayor of Vienna in 1895 and transformed the Austrian capital into a modern city, bringing streetcars, electricity, and gas under city government control. He also developed parks, schools, and hospitals. He was instrumental in introducing universal suffrage in Austria
|
|
|
• Edward Bernstein:
|
German socialist. From 1872 he was actively associated with the Social Democratic party. In 1878, antisocialist legislation sent him into exile. In 1898, he aroused controversy among German socialists by critiquing Marxism, denying that the collapse of capitalism was imminent, and maintaining that the bourgeoisie was not wholly parasitic. He saw socialism as the final result of liberalism, not revolution. Returning from England to Berlin in 1901 he became the leader of revisionism,
|
|
|
• Robert Fulton
|
: U.S. inventor and engineer. Born to Irish immigrant parents, he studied painting with Benjamin West in London but soon turned to engineering. After designing a system of inland waterways, he tried unsuccessfully to interest the French and British governments in his prototypes of submarines (see Nautilus) and torpedoes. In 1801 he was commissioned by Robert R. Livingston to build a steamboat, and in 1807 Fulton's Clermont made the 150-mi (240-km) journey up the Hudson River from New York City to Albany in 32 hours, cutting 64 hours off the usual sailing time. It became the first commercially successful steamboat in the U.S. He later designed several other steamboats
|
|
|
• Commodore Matthew Perry –
|
United States naval officer who negotiated with Japanese officials to achieve the goal of opening doors of trade with Japan. On July 8, 1853 four black ships led by USS Powhatan and commanded by Commodore Matthew Perry, anchored at Edo (Tokyo) Bay.
|
|
|
• Muhammad Ali of Egypt –
|
regarded as founder of modern Egypt. Though not a modern nationalist, he instituted dramatic reforms in the military, economic, and cultural spheres. The dynasty he established would rule Egypt until the Egyptian Revolution of 1952
|
|
|
• Cecil Rhodes -
|
was an English-born businessman, mining magnate, and politician in South Africa. He was the founder of the diamond company De Beers, which today markets 40% of the world's rough diamonds and at one time marketed 90%.[2] He was an ardent believer in colonialism and imperialism, and was the founder of the state of Rhodesia, which was named after him. Rhodesia, later Northern and Southern Rhodesia, eventually became Zambia and Zimbabwe respectively. South Africa's Rhodes University is named in tribute to him, and he is also known for the Rhodes Scholarship which is funded by his estate.
|
|
|
• Rudyard Kipling
|
is the author of The Jungle Book and other British-flavored tales of the Indian subcontinent
|
|
|
• Joseph Conrad -
|
was a novelist and story writer whose most famous works are Lord Jim and Heart of Darkness.
|
|
|
• David Lloyd George –
|
Spokesman representing Britain at Paris after WWI
|
|
|
• Archduke Francis Ferdinand –
|
His assassination by a political terrorist society called the Black Hand led to the start of WWI.
|
|
|
• Georges Clemenceau –
|
Spokesman representing France at Paris after WWI.
|
|
|
• Woodrow Wilson –
|
United States President during WWI. Presented the Fourteen Points that were idealistic principles, including self-determination for nationalities, open diplomacy, freedom of the seas, disarmament, and the establishment of the League of Nations to keep the peace. Only dealt with a democratic German government.
|
|
|
• Rasputin –
|
A wandering peasant and self-styled holy man, Rasputin became a favorite of Nicholas and the Empress Alexandra in 1905 after he laid hands on their son Alexis, apparently healing the boy of hemophilia. Rasputin was soon a fixture in the royal household and a particular confidante to Alexandra. Wild-eyed and unkempt, Rasputin was strangely charismatic and his personal magnetism was legendary; at the same time his bouts of drinking, womanizing, and wild behavior created a scandal in Russian society
|
|
|
• Vladimir Ilyich Lenin -
|
When revolution broke out in Russia in 1917, he led the Bolsheviks to control the government. had complete political control over the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (U.S.S.R.) until his death, and is remembered as the man who put Marx's ideas to practical use.
|
|
|
• Trotsky –
|
Helped Lenin gain control of Russia at first. After Lenin’s death, he led the Bolshevik Army to victory over the opponents of the Russian Revolution. He and Stalin later quarreled over the direction of the revolution.
|
|
|
• Friedrich Nietzsche –
|
Criticized democracy and Christianity. He sought to return the heroism that he associated with Greek life in the Homeric age. Most profound works are Beyond Good and Evil and The Genealogy of Morals. Christianity, utilitarianism, and middle-class respectability could, in good conscience, be abandoned. Human beings could create a new moral order that would glorify pride, assertiveness, and strength rather than meekness, humility, and weakness.
|
|
|
• Georges Sorel -
|
was a French philosopher and theorist of revolutionary syndicalism. His notion of the power of myth in people's lives was inspiration for Marxists, for Fascists, and for the people who created the science of advertising.
|
|
|
• Jean-Paul Sarte -
|
was one of the most influential writers and thinkers of the 20th century. His name is nearly synonymous with existentialism, a branch of philosophy whose tenets include the idea that the essence of existence is founded in human experience and consciousness.
|
|
|
• Albert Camus -
|
was one of the most highly-regarded French writers while he was alive, and today his books continue to be bestsellers in France and staples of university courses in Western literature and philosophy.
|
|
|
• Soren Kierkegaard -
|
was a profound and prolific writer in the Danish "golden age" of intellectual and artistic activity. His work crosses the boundaries of philosophy, theology, psychology, literary criticism, devotional literature and fiction
|
|
|
• Albert Einstein –
|
published his first epoch-making papers on relativity in which he contended that time and space exist not separately, but rather as a combined continuum. The measurement of time and space depends on the observer as well as on the entities being measured.
|
|
|
• Edvard Munch -
|
was a Norwegian Symbolist painter, printmaker and an important forerunner of expressionistic art. His best-known composition, The Scream is part of a series The Frieze of Life, in which Munch explored the themes of life, love, fear, death, and melancholy
|
|
|
• Virginia Woolf –
|
A chief proponent of modernism in England who wrote A Room of One’s Own. Challenged some of the accepted notions of feminist thought, asking whether women writers should bring their work any separate qualities they possessed as women, and concluding that men and women writers should strive to share each other’s sensibilities.
|
|
|
• James Joyce –
|
Modernist. Born in Ireland, but spent most of his life on the Continentm transformed not only the novel, but also the structure of the paragraph.
|
|
|
• T.S. Elliot –
|
Poet, dramatist, and literary critic. Modernist.
|
|
|
• Claude Monet-
|
An impressionist painter. Lived from 1840-1926
|
|
|
• Pierre August Renoir -
|
was a French artist who was a leading painter in the development of the Impressionist style. As a celebrator of beauty, and especially feminine sensuality, it has been said that "Renoir is the final representative of a tradition which runs directly from Rubens to Watteau".[1]
|
|
|
Vincent Van Gogh
|
post-impressionist painter. Painted Starry Night.
|
|
|
• Paul Cezanne
|
- was a French artist and Post-Impressionist painter whose work laid the foundations of the transition from the 19th century conception of artistic endeavour to a new and radically different world of art in the 20th century
|
|
|
• Henri Matisse
|
is considered the most important French artist of the 20th century and, along with Pablo Picasso, one of the most influential modernist painters of the last century
|
|
|
• Pablo Picasso-
|
Cubism. Along with Henri Matisse, he is considered one of the greatest artists of the 20th century
|
|
|
• John Maynard Keynes -
|
The Economic Consequences of Peace, his 1919 critique of the Versailles Peace Conference. (He thought the harsh reparations demanded of Germany would lead to economic instability -- and they did.) His 1936 book, General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money, made him the most famous and influential economist since Adam Smith. his notion that governments should intervene in times of market distress eclipsed Smith's laissez-faire capitalism and has influenced Western democracies since the 1930s
|
|
|
• Adolf Hitler –
|
Leader of Nazi German. Lead them into WWII and started WWII.
|
|
|
• Josef Stalin –
|
Leader of Russia after Lenin’s death. Sided with Germany in WWII to prevent being invaded. Great Purge, Five-Year Plan, Collectivization, and New Economic Policy.
|
|
|
• Benito Mussolini –
|
Leader of Fascist Italy during WWII. Italy's failures in the war led to his removal from government, and when the war ended he was arrested, tried and executed.
|
|
|
• Victor Emmanuel II -
|
was the King of Piedmont, Savoy, and Sardinia from 1849 to 1861. On February 18, 1861, he assumed the title King of Italy to become the first king of a united Italy, a title he held until his death in 1878. The Italians gave him the epithet Father of the Fatherland
|
|
|
• Heinrich Himmler –
|
Germany’s second most powerful man in Nazi Germany. Leader of the SS. Right hand man of Hitler.
|
|
|
• Neville Chamberlain -
|
was a British Conservative politician and Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1937 to 1940. Chamberlain is best known for appeasement foreign policy, in particular regarding his signing of the Munich Agreement in 1938, conceding the Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia to Germany, and for his "containment" policy of Germany in 1939 that culminated in declaring war on Germany on 3 September 1939.
|
|
|
• Winston Churchill -
|
Soldier, politician and finally prime minister, Winston Churchill was one of Britain's greatest 20th-century heroes. He is particularly remembered for his indomitable spirit while leading Great Britain to victory in World War II.
|
|
|
• Nikita Khrushchev -
|
He began to reform Stalin's most brutal excesses, and when he denounced some crimes of Stalin in 1956 it was regarded as a stunning development. A Russian leader during Cold War.
|
|
|
• Boris Pasternak -
|
was a Nobel Prize-winning Russian poet and writer. In the West he is best known for his epic novel Doctor Zhivago, a tragedy whose events span the last period of Tsarist Russia and the early days of the Soviet Union
|
|
|
• Leonid Brezhnev –
|
Russian leader during Cold War. Invaded Czechoslovakia, Détente, invasion of Afghanistan, Helsinki Accords, Martial law declared in Poland in response to Solidarity
|
|
|
• Alexander Dubcek
|
- famous for his attempt to reform the Communist regime (Prague Spring). Later, after the overthrow of the Communist government in 1989, he was Speaker of the federal Czechoslovak parliament.
|
|
|
• Josip Tito -
|
was the leader of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia from 1945 until his death in 1980. During World War II, Tito organized the anti-fascist resistance movement known as the National Liberation Movement led by Yugoslav Partisans. Later he was a founding member of Cominform,[1] but resisted Soviet influence (see Titoism) and became one of the main founders and promoters of the Non-Aligned Movement.
|
|
|
• Mikhail Gorbachev –
|
Soviet Union leader known for glasnost and perestroika.
|
|
|
• Charles DeGaulle
|
formed the Free French forces and led the provisional government that ruled France after it was retaken from Germany. After the war he was elected head of the French government, but left the post in 1946 and formed a new political party, the Rassemblement du Peuple Francais. He oversaw the constitutional reforms that led to the Fifth Republic of France, and became the first president of the new Republic in 1959. Proud, stubborn, and charismatic, he insisted on France's right to pursue an independent path from both Europe and the United States. Granted Algeria independence.
|
|
|
• Willy Brandt -
|
was a German politician, Chancellor of West Germany 1969–1974, and leader of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) 1964–1987. Known for Ostpolitik, a policy aimed at improving relations with East Germany, Poland, and the Soviet Union.
|
|
|
• Helmut Kohl -
|
is a German conservative politician and statesman. He was Chancellor of Germany from 1982 to 1998 (of West Germany between 1982 and 1990 and of a reunited Germany between 1990 and 1998) and the chairman of the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) from 1973 to 1998.
|
|
|
• Francois Mitterand -
|
served as President of France from 1981 to 1995, elected as representative of the Socialist Party (PS).
|
|
|
• Simone de Beauvoir
|
- was a French author and philosopher. She wrote novels, monographs on philosophy, politics, and social issues, essays, biographies, and an autobiography in several volumes. She is now best known for her metaphysical novels, including She Came to Stay and The Mandarins, and for her 1949 treatise The Second Sex, a detailed analysis of women's oppression and a foundational tract of contemporary feminism.
|
|
|
• Lech Walesa -
|
face of Poland's anti-Soviet struggle, and in 1990 he won the presidency in Poland's first free election in half a century. His term was marked by internal struggles within his political party, and by the time he left office he was considerably less popular.
|
|
|
• Nicolai Ceausescu
|
- was the Secretary General of the Romanian Workers' Party, later the Romanian Communist Party from 1965 until 1989, President of the Council of State from 1967 and President of Romania from 1974 until 1989. His rule was marked in the first decade by an open policy towards Western Europe and the United States of America, which deviated from that of the other Warsaw Pact states during the Cold War.
|
|
|
• Boris Yelstin -
|
was an engineer and minor Communist Party official of the U.S.S.R. before winning the Russian presidency by popular vote in 1989. As president he was a key bridge figure between old-style Soviet Communism and the Russia of the 21st century. Rough-edged, blustery and jovial, Yeltsin was a populist leader late in the 1980s. Eager to speed up reforms, he opposed the policies of Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev, yet was instrumental in defeating a coup against Gorbachev in 1991.
|
|
|
• Slobodan Milosevic
|
- A fierce Serb nationalist, Slobodan Milosevic became president of Serbia in 1989 in that country's first democratic elections since World War I. He then became President of Yugoslavia in 1997.
|
