Ethics Midterm

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to be involved in something in a person, concept, yourself, process, problem or another feeling.

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Feeling

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is the interiorization of the world. Our capacity to feel a spontaneous link and response to the word, than our capacity to think. This is so because it involves the body.

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Feeling

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are more expressed and expressible in body language( smile, frown) than in concept. to control feelings is to control expression of feeling.

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Feeling

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are also more intimate than thinking. They give the main information to what we are on our relation to the world. That's why feelings are more difficult to hide and think about.\

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Feeling

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are valuations of facts

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Feelings

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that is to say feelings and intuitions

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Emotions

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plays a major role in most of the ethical decisions people make.

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Emotions

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Most people do not realize how much this direct their moral choices. but experts think it is impossible to make any important moral judgment without emotion

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emotions

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like guilt, embarrassment, and shame often motivate people to act ethically

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Inner directed negative emotion

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on the other hand into discipline or punishment.For example, people often direct anger, disgust, or contempt at those who have acted and ethically.

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Outer directed negative emotion

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like gratitude and admiration, which people may feel when they see another acting with compassion and kindness, can prompt people to help others.

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Positive emotion

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Discourage others from behaving the same way.

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Outer directed negative emotion

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Lead people to act ethically towards others

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Emotions evoke by suffering

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is the central moral emotion that most commonly motivates prosocial activity such as altruism, cooperation, and generosity.

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Empathy

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Why are we the only moral agents?

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because only human beings are free.

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To be ethical requires this three

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1. Pause

2. Critical thinking

3. Courage

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to get hold of emotion because they do damage and distance from everyone else is saying

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Pause

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to analyze the situation, consider stakeholders interest and make the right choices and see the bigger picture and align the choice with values are important to the moral agents

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Critical thinking

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to act deliberately and with conviction on what reason says is the right thing to do.

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Courage

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this can help us when we are faced with moral dilemmas so we can exercise our freedom as humans in order to reflect systematically, critically, and intelligently

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7 step model for moral decision making

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frequently, ethical dilemmas can be resolved simply by clarifying the facts of the case in question

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Gather the facts

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In those cases that proved to be more difficult, gathering the facts is the essential first step prior to any ethical analysis and reflection on the case.

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Gather the facts

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In analyzing a case, we want to know the available facts at hand as well as any facts currently not known but that need to be ascertained. does one is asking not only “ what do we know” but also “ what do we need to know?” in order to make an intelligent ethical decision.

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Gather the facts

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The ethical issues are stated in terms of competing interest or goods. in this conflicting interest that actually made for an ethical dilemma

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Determining the ethical issues

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The issues should be presented in ___ versus______ format in order to reflect the interests that are colliding in a particular ethical dilemma.

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Determining the ethical issues

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For example, in business ethics there is often a conflict between the right of a firm to make a fair profit and each obligation to the community. In this case that obligation pertains to the environment

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Determining the ethical issues

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In any ethical dilemma, there are certain moral values or principles that are central to the conflicting position being taken. It is critical to identify these principles, and in some cases, to determine whether some principles are to be weighted more heavily than others. clearly, biblical principles will be weighted the most heavily.

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What principle have a bearing on the case?

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There may be other principles that speak to be the case that come from other sources. there may be constitutional principles that speak to be the case that come from other sources. there constitution principle or principles From natural law that supplement the biblical principles that come into play here. The principles that come out of your sense of missions and columns are also considered important.

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What principle have a bearing on the case?

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Part of the creative thinking involved in resolving an ethical dilemma involves coming up with various alternative courses of action.

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List of alternative

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Although there will be some alternatives that you will rule out without much thought, in general the more alternatives that are listed, the better the chance that your list will include some higher quality once. in addition you may come up with some very creative alternatives that you had not considered before

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List of alternative

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At this point, The task is one of eliminating alternatives according to the moral principles that have a bearing on the case. In many instances, the case will be resolved at this point, since the principles will eliminate all alternatives except one.

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Compare the alternative with the principle

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In fact, the purpose of this comparison is to see if there is a clear decision that can be made without further liberation. If a clear decision is not forthcoming, then the next part is the model must be considered. At least, some of the alternatives may be eliminated by this type of comparison,

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Compare the alternative with the principle

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The principles do not yield a clear decision, then a consideration of the consequences of the remaining available alternatives is in order.

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Weight the consequences

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Both positive and negative consequences are to be considered. They should be informally weighed, since some positive consequences are more beneficial than others and some negative consequences are more detrimental than others.

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Weight the consequences

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Deliberation cannot go on forever. At some point, a decision must be made. Realize that one common element in ethical dilemmas is that there are no easy and painless solutions to them.

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Make a decision

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Frequently, the decision that is made is one that involves the least number of problems or negative consequences, not the one that is devoid of them.

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Make a decision

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is a philosophy developed by Aristotle and other ancient greeks.

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Virtue ethics

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It is the quest to understand and live a life of moral character

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Virtue ethics

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assumes that we acquire virtue through practice. by practicing being honest, brave, just, generous, and so on, a person develops an honorable, and moral character.

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character-based approach to morality

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,being a virtuous habit, people will likely make the right choice when faced with ethical challenges.

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According to Aristotle

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helps us understand what it means to be a virtuous human being.n and it gives us a guide for living life without giving us specific rules for resolving ethical dilemmas.

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Virtue ethics

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1724-1804A “German” philosopher from Kogsberg; East Prussia

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Emmanuel kant

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Wrote among other things, Critique of Pure Reason (1781), The Fundamental Principles of Foundations of/Grounding for the Metaphysics of Morals (1785)

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Emmanuel kant

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An ethics with an a priori foundation

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Kant's project

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is based on moral law, which is valid for all people because it is completely rational

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Genuine morality

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Kant’s test for the rational consistency of moral principle is the categorical imperative

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Kant's project

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Only the good will is absolutely good and not “the gift of nature” (such as the “talents of the mind” or “qualities of temperament”) nor the “gifts of fortune.”

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Kant's moral theory

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A good will is good, not because of its effects, but is good in itself. A good will is good because it is done out of duty

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Kant's moral theory

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Actions that only accord with duty – if done out of inclination or self-interest- are merely “praiseworthy”

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Kant's moral theory

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if done for the sake of duty

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Morally “good”/ “valuable” –

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if done in direct opposition on duty

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Morally “bad"

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if, though not in direct opposition to duty, is also not for the sake of duty, but is still not in accordance with duty.

if, though not in direct opposition to duty, is also not for the sake of duty, but is still not in accordance with duty.

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Morally “neutral”

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- if, though in accordance with duty, is still done for the same reason than duty itself

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Praiseworthy

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the principle (or general rule) of volition, i.e., will, one’s power of choice, or the act of choosing itself.

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“maxim”

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The supreme principle of the moral law

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Categorical Imperative

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,” which can either be imperatives of skill or imperatives of prudenceIf you want A, then do B. –vs- Do B.

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hypothetical imperatives

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Act only on that maxim whereby you can at the same will that is should become a universal law.

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[Principle of Universality]

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Act as to treat humanity, whether in your own person or in that of any other, in every case as an end itself, not as means only.

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[Principle of Humanity as End-in-itself]

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Act so that your will is what makes universal law.

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[Principle of Autonomy; vs. “heteronomy”]

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is from the Greek: autos: “self” + nomos: “law” [The law comes from one’s self.

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Autonomy

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is the lawmaker, the legislator (of moral law).]

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Oneself

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heteros: “other, different” + nomos:“laws” [The law comes from outside one’s self, i.e., from other people (individuals, institutions, societies, cultures, etc.).]

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Heteronomy

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Suicide because of misfortuneMaxim: Kant:

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Maxim: Shorten one’s life when it’s unsatisfactory to end itKant: cannot be a universal law

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Promising to repay debt when one knows one cannot

Maxim:

Kant:

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Maxim: Promise whatever if one is in a difficult situationKant: cannot be a universal law

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Not cultivating one’s natural gifts

Maxim:

Kant:

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Maxim: Give it in to one’s indulgence of pleasure or enjoyment instead of cultivating one’s gift.Kant: cannot be a universal law

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Not helping those in need when one is prosperous

Maxim:

Kant:

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Maxim: One must only think of one’s happinessKant: cannot be a universal law

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Scholars classify Kant’s theory as “”, which means an ethics centered on “duty” (Greek: deone, meaning “duty”):

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deontological

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(e.g. Utilitarianism), in which actions are right or wrong depending on their consequence or outcome.

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Consequentialist

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A “right” is a “justified claim on others”

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Right theorist

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There are negative rights on positive rights

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Right theorist

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Kant’s principle of treating humanity as “end-in-itself” is the source of much of current thinking on the reality of rights

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Right theories

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advances this Kantian view by suggesting that "several different fundamental rules or principles are prima facie duties.

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William David Ross

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"specify factors or features of a situation that speak in favor of or against, morally speaking, an act or what to set ourselves to do." These obligations are called for by specific situations and are immediately recognized by any rational person.

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" Prima facie duties

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We should strive to keep promises and be honest and truthful

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Fidelity.

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We should make amends when we have wronged someone else.

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Reparation

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. We should be grateful to others when they perform actions that benefit us and we should try to return the favor.

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Gratitude

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We should refrain from harming others either physically or psychologically.

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Non-injury (or non-maleficence).

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. We should be kind to others and to try to improve their health, wisdom, security, happiness, and well-being.

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Beneficence

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We should strive to improve our own health, wisdom, security, happiness, and well-being.

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Self-improvement

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We should try to be fair and try to distribute benefits and burdens equably and evenly.

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Justice

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described as an entitlement or justified claim to a certain kind of positive and negative treatment from others, to support from others or non-interference from others.

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Rights

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In other words, a right is something to which every individual in the community is morally permitted, and for which that community is entitled to disrespect or compulsorily remove anything that stands in the way of even a single individual getting it.

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Right

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are those important conditions of social life without which no person can generally realize his best self. These are the essential conditions for health of both the individual and his society. It is only when people get and enjoy rights that they can develop their personalities and contribute their best services to society.

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Rights

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are the common claims of people which every cultured society recognizes as essential claims for their development, and which are therefore enforced by the state.

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Rights

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exist only in society. These are the products of social living.

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Rights

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are claims of the individuals for their development in society.

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Rights

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are recognized by society as common claims of all the people.

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Rights

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are rational and moral claims that the people make in their society.

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Rights

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are here only in society, these cannot be exercised against the society

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rights

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are to be exercised by the people for their development which really means their development in society by the promotion of social good. Rights can never be exercised against social good

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Rights

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are equally available to all the people.

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Rights

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The contents keep on changing with the passage of time.

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rights

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are not absolute. These always bear limitations deemed essential for maintaining public health, security, order and morality.

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Rights

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are inseparably related with duties. There is a close relationship between them “No Duties No Rights. No Rights No Duties.” “If I have rights it is my duty to respect the rights of others in society”.

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Rights

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need enforcement and only then these can be really used by the people. These are protected and enforced by the laws of the state. It is the duty of a state to protect the rights of the people.

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Rights

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are based on human consciousness.

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MORAL RIGHTS

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They are supported by the moral force of the human mind.

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MORAL RIGHTS

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These are based on human sense of goodness and justice.

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Moral Rights

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These are not assisted by the force of law. Sense of goodness and public opinion are the sanctions behind moral rights.

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Moral Rights

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If any person disrupts any, no legal action can be taken against him. The state does not enforce these rights. Its courts do not recognize these rights.

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Moral Rights

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include rules of good conduct, courtesy and of moral behavior. These stand for moral perfection of the people.

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Moral Rights

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are those rights which are accepted and enforced by the state.

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LEGAL RIGHT

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Any defilement is punished by law. Law courts of the state enforce legal rights.

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LEGAL RIGHT

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These rights can be enforced against individuals and also against the government. In this way, legal rights are different from moral rights.

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LEGAL RIGHTS

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are equally available to all the citizens. All citizens follow legal rights without any discrimination. They can go to the courts for getting their legal rights enforced.

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LEGAL RIGHTS

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are those moral rights that are morally important and basic, and that are held by every human being because they are possessed in virtue of the universal moral status of human beings.

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Human rights

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are one of the significant aspects of human political reality. It is the moral right of the highest order.

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Human rights

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evolved out of self-respect. It is intrinsic to all humans without any discrimination of race, sex, nationality, ethnicity, language, religion and color etc. It received a new shape when human beings began to think for themselves. Each and every human being is entitled to these rights without any discrimination.

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Human rights

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consist of civil and political rights, such as the right to life, liberty and freedom of expression; and social, cultural and economic rights including the right to participate in culture, the right to food, and the right to work and receive an education.

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Human rights

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He said “what is good for the many should be prioritized over what is good for three individual”

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John stuart mill

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The action is right if it promoted greater happiness for the greatest number of people

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principle of utility

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The ethical theory of consequentialism would elevate the morality of action based on your consequences.

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Consequencialist

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An action is right if its consequences are good: it’s wrong if otherwise. The action is wrong depending on the consequences or outcome it produces.

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Consequencialist

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evaluate the moral worth of actions in terms of their consequences.

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Theories of ethics or consequentialist

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it is right to keep your promise because its consequences are good: it is wrong to make a false promise because the consequences are bad.

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Consequencialist

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Is perhaps the more well known consequentialist theory

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Utilitarianism

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According to one of its key proponents, John Stuart Mill “actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness: wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness

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Utilitarianism

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Mill labels this as “greatest happiness principle”

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Utilitarianism

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Talks about greatest happiness all people can achieve

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Utilitarianism

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Proposed utilitarianism in 1861Was the most influential english language philosopher of the nineteenth century

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John stuart Mill

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He was a naturalist, a utilitarian, and a liberal whose work explores the consequences of a thoroughgoing empiricist outlook.

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John stuart Mill

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He sought to combine the best of eighteenth century enlightenment thinking with newly emerging currents of nineteenth century romantic and historical philosophy.

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John stuart mill

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His most important works include “system of logic (1843)”, “on liberty (1859)”, utilitarianism (1861)” and “an examination of sir william hamilton’s philosophy (1865)”Maximizing happiness and minimizing pain for the greatest number of people.

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John stuart Mill

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But is mill referring here to an actual action or just to the intent to perform the action?

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Mill's utilitarianism focuses on the consequences of action, and therefore he is referring to the actual action rather than just to intent to perform the action.

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To action types or individual action tokens?

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Focuses on each individual action that is evaluated on its consequences and its impact on overall happiness.

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What does Mill mean by happiness?

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Happiness is not just pleasure or absence of pain, he believed that true happiness comes from pursuing higher pleasure such as intellectual, moral pursuit and living a life that is meaningful and fulfilling

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Whose happiness is he talking about?

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Mill’s utilitarianism aims to promote happiness for individuals affected by an action not just by happiness of the person performing the action

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What does Mill mean by greatest number?

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Mill’s is referring to the greatest number of individuals affected by an action, this aim is to promote the overall happiness of as many individuals as possible.

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Is it the total or average happiness?

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In Mill’s utilitarianism the total happiness rather than just the average happiness because our goals is the greatest amount of happiness.

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An action is morally right if it produces the best possible results in a specific situation.

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Act utilitarianism

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Accordingly, the greates happiness principle must be applied on a case by case basis

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Act utilitarianism

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The right action is the one that yields more happiness that other available actions in a given situationWould evaluate actio-tokens

The right action is the one that yields more happiness that other available actions in a given situationWould evaluate actio-tokens

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Act utilitarianism

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Stresses the importance of moral rules and standards in asssessing an actions moral worth

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Rule utilitarianism

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A specific action is morally right if ot conforms to a justified moral rule

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Rule utilitarianism

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A moral rule, in turns, is justified if its inclusion into our moral code created more happiness that other possible rulesWould evaluate instantiations of action types.

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Rule utilitarianism

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For Mill, "happiness is intended pleasure and the absence of pain; by unhappiness, pain and the privation of pleasure."

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MILL's utilitarianism

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are stated in terms of competing interest or goods. in this conflicting interest that actually made for an ethical dilemma

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The ethical issues

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Will be weighted the most heavily

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Biblical principles

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Is the necessity of acting from respect for the law

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duty

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Actions are right or wrong in and of themselves, based on whether they are done in the name of duty or go against duty, regardless of outcome.

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Deontological ethics