Ethics Final

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CULTURAL RELATIVISM

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Module 2 Assignment (Chapter 1)

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1. Explain the differences between moral relativism, cultural relativism, and individual relativism.

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Moral relativism - the view that moral values are human creations. Cultural relativism - traditions are created by societies which pass them along through generations and fortify them through rewards and punishments. Individual relativism - everyone creates his or her own moral standards.

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2. According to your textbook, why does Xenophanes think that religious beliefs are culturally relative?

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Xenophanes thinks that religious beliefs are culturally relative because our own cultural experiences are determinants of our opinions of the gods and our religious views are subjective descriptions of them. For instance, Xenophanes notes that different ethnic groups portray the gods in the likeness of their own people such as in the case of Egyptians who say their gods are flat-nosed and dark and Thracians who say theirs are blue-eyed and red-haired.

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3. According to your textbook, what is Pyrrho’s view of morality?

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According to the text, Pyrrho’s view of morality is that in moral situations, judgement must be withheld. This is due to the fact that he holds the belief that in moral matters, we cannot determine whether anything is truly good or bad.

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4. According to Balfour, how do we determine whether a social practice reflects true morality or is simply depraved? What is the problem with Balfour’s argument according to your textbook?

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According to Balfour, the true standard of morality “shines forth with the greater lustre from amid bad practices.” His belief is that we are all able to intuitively see the difference between depraved practices and true morality. Balfour’s argument is problematic because it does not take into account the idea that because our internal intuitions may be products of our own cultures, we are unable to safely appeal to these intuitions to determine which practices are depraved and which reflect true morality.

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5. According to Rachels, what are three values that are common to all societies? What are some values that do appear to vary from culture to culture?

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According to Rachels, three common values that are common to all societies are caring for children, truth telling, and prohibitions against murder. Some values that appear to vary from culture to culture are those concerning homosexuality, adultery, and polygamy.

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6. What does the author (Fieser) think we should conclude about the argument from social diversity? Explain your answer.

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Fieser thinks that of the argument from social diversity, we should conclude that even if a value is endorsed by all cultures throughout history, cultural relativists can still pose the argument of that particular value being based on social traditions and not objective standards.

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7. Explain the difference between cultural relativism and moral nihilism?

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Cultural relativism is the view that traditions are created by societies which pass them along through generations and fortify them through rewards and punishments. Conversely, moral nihilism is the theory that there are no moral binding values at all.

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8. According to your textbook, what are the metaethical and normative ethical views of the cultural relativist?

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According to the text, the methethical view of the cultural relativist investigates where morality comes from. The ethical view explores the best values and guiding principles of human conduct.

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9. What are the author’s (Fieser’s) three responses to the criticism that cultural relativism leads to horrible values?

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Feiser’s first response to the criticism that cultural relativism leads to horrible values is that objectivists assume that given objective moral principles are fixed, unchanging, and essentially good. His second response is that if we have no clear litmus test for recognizing objective moral principles that are unchanging, then we may create our value system independently of them. His third response is that cultural relativists don't necessarily hold that moral values are completely arbitrary creations of human society.

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10. According to the author (Fieser), does cultural relativism rule out universal moral judgments? Why or why not?

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According to Fieser, cultural relativism does rule out universal moral judgments. This is because anyone is entitled to make universal pronouncements, and thus believe them, according to the rules of morality.

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VIRTUE THEORY

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Module 3 Questions (Chapter 3)

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1. Define "virtue," "vice," and "virtue theory."

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Virtues are “positive character traits that regulate emotions and urges” (Fieser,35). Examples include courage, temperance, justice, and prudence. Vices are “negative character traits that we develop in response to the same emotions and urges” (Fieser,35). Virtue Theory is a theory that states that morality is based on a foundation of good character traits and virtues.

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2. List the four cardinal virtues in Plato’s theory.

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The four cardinal virtues are Plato’s Theory are wisdom, courage, temperance, and justice.

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3. What are the three faculties of the psyche? And, how is the appetitive faculty both rational and irrational?

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The three faculties of the psyche are one that reasons, one that wills, and one that had appetites (Fieser, 35). The appetitive faculty is both rational and irrational because by nature it is irrational, but because it is guided by reason makes it makes it rational. “It is irrational since even lower animals experience desires. However, this faculty is rationally guided in humans since we have the distinct ability to control these desires with reason (Fieser,36).

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4. What are “moral virtues”, and what are Aristotle’s three general observations about them?

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Moral Virtue is the human ability to control our emotions and desires. Aristotle’s first observation is that the ability to control our emotions isn’t instinctive but learned. Secondly, desire regulating virtues are character traits and shouldn’t be seen as emotions. Thirdly, moral virtues are desire regulating traits that fall between more extreme character traits.

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5. What are the two vices associated with the virtue of courage?

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The two vices associated with the virtue of courage are rashness and cowardice (37).

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6. List the eleven virtues that Aristotle covers.

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The eleven virtues that Aristotle covers are courage, temperance, generosity, magnificence, self-respect, right ambition, good temper, friendly civility, sincerity, wittiness, and modesty (37).

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7. For Aristotle, what are the two contributions of practical wisdom in the development of virtues?

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The two contributions of practical wisdom in the development of virtues are “intuitive knowledge about our ultimate purpose in life” (38), and “planning the best way of attaining this ultimate purpose” (38).

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8. In Aristotle’s discussion of good temper, what are the five factors involved in our appropriate response to anger?

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The five factors involved in our appropriate response to anger are we should only get angry: to the right person, for the right offense, to an acceptable degree, to the right quickness, and for the right amount of time (39).

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9. What are the three theological virtues?

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The three theological virtues are faith, hope, and charity (40).

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10. Give an example of a misapplied virtue that may become a vice. How does Kant suggest that we resolve the problems of misapplied virtues?

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An example of a misapplied virtue that may become a vice is the dramatic illustration given by Maximilien de Bethune. Kant suggests that we resolve the problems of misapplied virtues by developing “virtues in response to general moral principles that we follow” (43).

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11. Mill argued that virtues are irrelevant when we judge a person’s actions. What is Fieser’s response to Mill?

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Fieser’s response to Mill is that virtues are not relevant in our assessment of the actual action.

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12. What are the differencesbetween action/ rule based morality and virtue based morality? What isAnscombe's criticism of action or rule-based morality?

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Action or rule based morality emphasizes proper actions, which conformto moral rules. It says that although we may possess good traits, which allowus to perform good actions, it doesn’t define the action. Virtue based moralitydiffers in that importance is placed on developing good character traits ratherthan emphasizing on moral rules. Anscombe’s argue that “virtue theory should becompletely independent of moral rules” (46).

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13. What is the difference between strong and weak virtue theory? And, what are the three "rule" aspects of Aristotle's theory?

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According to the text, “strong virtue theory rejects all rules, while weak virtue theory involves some rules” (Fieser, 50). Aristotle’s Theory has three rules that are part of virtue based morality. The first rule is a general principle, which is known by Aristotle’s followers as the “principle of the golden mean” (Fieser, 46). These are right or virtuous actions that fall between extreme responses. The rule can be bent and is considered to be flexible because it all depends on our specific circumstance. The second rule is how “we assess the correctness of our own actions, as well as others” (Fieser,46). Aristotle claims that we praise or condemn these actions based on the virtues of temperance, courage, and generosity. Thirdly, the last rule is the connection established between ethics and politics. Ethics is discovery of human purpose, while politics involves “what we are to do, what we are to abstain from” (Fieser,47). Collectively, ethics and politics work together to establish just actions and just punishments.

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14.What are the three contemporary criticisms of virtue theory?

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First, critics argue that there is an issue determining who is virtuous. Second, critics argue that some acts are so unacceptable that a list of prohibited offenses should be created. Third, critics argue that theory makes it permissible to behave badly as long as the virtue remains in tact (47).

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15. What does Maclntyre say about the moral vocabulary that we use today?

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MacIntyre believes that in today’s society we only have fragments of conflicting traditions. He believes we have lost our comprehension.

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NATURAL LAW

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Module 4 Assignment (Chapter 4)

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1. In Roman law - particularly in The Body of the Civil Law – what does "natural law" refer to?

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In The Body of the Civil Law, natural law refers to “laws that apply to animals as well as humans” (Fieser 56).

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2. Describe Aquinas's distinctions between eternal law, natural law, human law, and divine law.

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According to Aquinas eternal law is a “complete set of God’s law which govern the whole community of the universe” (Fieser 57). Natural law is a “subset of eternal law and includes only general rules of conduct” (Fieser 57). Human law “represents our attempt to deduce more specific rules from the general rules of natural law” (57). Finally, divine law is a “special subset of eternal law that God reveals to us” (57).

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3. What are the two parts of Aquinas's synderesis principle?

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The first part of Aquinas’ synderesis principle is “If X is for our proper human end, then X ought to be done” (59). The second part is “If X is not for proper human end, then X ought not to be done” (59).

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4. List the six human inclinations and their corresponding six primary precepts of morality.

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The six human inclinations are “self-preservation, heterosexual reproduction, education of offspring, rational thought, knowledge of God, and participation in society” (60). The six primary concepts of morality are “preserve human life, have heterosexual intercourse, educate children, shun ignorance, worship God, and avoid harming others” (Fieser 60).

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5. Give an example of how we deduce secondary moral principles from primary principles.

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An example of how we deduce secondary moral principles from primary principles is using “syllogistic logic” (61).

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6. What is a "super-added principle" of morality?

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A “super-added principle” of morality is a more specific principle drawn from the deduction process.

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7. According to Suarez, how should we view natural inclinations by themselves?

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According to Suarez we should view natural inclination by themselves as “animalistic” (63). He believes we must “perfect them through natural laws”(63).

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8. According to Fieser, what is the central problem with Aquinas's list of natural inclinations?

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According to Fieser, the central problem with Aquinas’ list of natural inclinations is that his list of inclinations is too “contrived” (63).

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9. According to Grotius, what is the highest principle of natural law?

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According to Grotius, the highest principle of natural law is “simply to be sociable” (Fieser 64).

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10. What are the five specific rules that Grotius deduces from his highest principle of natural law?

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The five specific rules that Grotius deduces from his highest principle of natural principle law are:” (1) Do not take things that belong to others, (2) restore to other people anything that you might have of theirs, (3) fulfill promises, (4) compensate for any loss that results through your own fault, (5) punish people as deserved” (64).

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11. According to Hobbes, what is a law of nature? And, what is the first law of nature?

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According to Hobbes law of nature is a “rational principle that mandates self preservation” (65). The first law of nature is “to seek peace, and follow it…[and] by all means we can, to defend ourselves” (65).

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12. What was Pufendorf 's compromise position between Grotius's and Hobbes's view?

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Pufendorf’s compromise position between Grotius’s and Hobbes’s view is that “our instinct of self-preservation ultimately forces us to be sociable” (65). Pudfendorf believes we are to weak to survive on our own, and that we need to rely on others for help.

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13. Explain Hume's view that we cannot derive ought from is.

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According to Hume, “we cannot establish statements of obligation through observation or scientific investigation” (66). From Hume’s point of view theories go wrong when they begin with facts and end with statements of obligation.

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14. How do natural law philosophers derive ought from is?

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Natural law philosophers derive ought from is by beginning with a fact and concluding with “ought” (67) as a result of what was stated.

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15. What are the three themes of natural law theory that are still with us today?

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The three themes of natural law theory that are still with us today involve “natural rights and duties” (69). Second, is that of the “social contract” (69). Third, is the “notion of supreme moral principles” (70). According to Grotius and Pufendorf “natural rights and duties” (69) is a list of rights that protect from the cruelness of others, however, obligate towards others. “Social contract” (69) is when we set aside our disagreements to live in peace amongst each other since it is the best way to prolong our own individual lives. The “notion of supreme moral principles” (70) is the highest principle of natural law which is to “do good, and avoid evil” (70).

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UTILITARIANISM

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Module 5 (Chapter 11)

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10. What are the key aspects of Mill's notion of "higher pleasures"?

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The key aspects of Mill's notion of "higher pleasures" include that higher pleasures are the main ingredients to general happiness, they are grounded in our intellectual abilities as well as qualitatively superior to lower pleasures. In addition, higher pleasure is produced by our sense of dignity, and vulnerable to neglect.

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11. What are the two defenses that utilitarians give in the face of Bradley's criticism?

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The two defenses that utilitarians give in the face of Bradley's criticism include the argument that long-term consequences are a factor in the morality of any action and the attention to long-term consequences will show the disutility of potential exploitation in some circumstances.

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12. Explain the dilemma of higher pleasures versus hedonism. What are the two ways of resolving this problem?

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According to Ernest Albee, higher pleasures are inconsistent with hedonism due to the fact that if we see pleasure as the only criterion of happiness, then we must deemphasize dignity and vice versa. So , in order to resolve this problem we may reject pleasure as the ultimate standard and judge actions based on the dignifying nature of conduct or we may set aside the notions of dignity and qualitative superiority and simply view pleasure of as the standard of happiness.

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13. What is the key advantage of hedonistic utilitarianism?

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The key advantage of hedonistic utilitarianism is its objectivity; it places the issue of morality in the eye of public observation.

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14. What is "ideal utilitarianism"? What is "preference utilitarianism"? And, what is the key problem that ideal and preference utilitarianism seeks to overcome?

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Ideal utilitarianism suggests that the morally right course of action is the one that brings about the greatest amount of goodness, regardless of what we recognize as good. However, preference utilitarianism is the view that the morally right course of action is the one that capitalizes on our own inclinations. Moreover, due to the fact that both ideal and preference utilitarianism are inclusive they lose objectivity and fail to be experientially measured.

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15. What are the three problems with any bare-bones notion of utilitarianism? And, According to Fieser, what is the best way to understand the role of utilitarianism in moral decision making?

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The three problems with any bare-bone notion of utilitarianism are first, utilitarianism does not accurately describe how we always make moral decisions; second, it isn’t clear that we should adopt the utilitarian formula when making all of our moral decisions; and third, in many cases, the utilitarian formula is neither a quick nor an easy way of making moral decisions. Finally, according to Fieser, the best way to understand the role of utilitarianism in moral decision-making is as a single unified formula, that is important, however unrealistic because actual decision-making relies on many different theories and explanations.

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DUTY THEORY & KANT’S CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE

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Module 6 Assignment (Chapter 7 & 10)

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1. According to Kant, why would it be wrong for someone to voluntarily be homeless?

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According to Kant, it be wrong for someone to voluntarily be homeless because Kant believes that we have a moral duty to develop our talents. Moreover, living homelessly on the streets is an irrational decision; thus, makes it a categorical imperative choice.

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2. What is the fundamental law of nature for Wolff?

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For Wolff, the fundamental law of nature follows this rule of working to make ourselves and other more perfect: “do what makes you and your condition, or that of others, more perfect; omit what makes it less perfect” (Fieser pg. 175).

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3. What is Kant's view about authoritarian moral commands?

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According to Kant, morality cannot arise from authoritarian commands but rather from the authority of human reason. (we should not blindly follow authoritarian commands). Rather, we should argue and listen to our own reason.

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4. What are the two classes of motives that influence our will? And, For Kant, what is the only legitimate motive in moral decision making?

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The two classes of motives that influence our will are “selfish inclinations” and “rational obligations” (Fieser, 176). According to Kant, the only legitimate motive in moral decision making are rational duties that conform to the categorical imperative.

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5. What is the step-by-step procedure indicated by the categorical imperative?

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The step-by- step procedure indicated by the categorical imperative is as follows (1) complete an action, (2) observe the maxim or guiding principle behind the action, (3) reflect on what that maxim would be like if it were a universal rule that everyone followed, and (4) if the universal rule is reasonable, then accept the action as moral; if unreasonable, reject the action as immoral.

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6. Explain Kant's formula of the law of nature in terms of the example of deceitfully borrowing money.

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Kant's formula of the law of nature states that one should “Act as if the maxim of your action were to become through your will a universal law of nature” (Fieser, 178). In the example of deceitfully borrowing money, a person would make the decision to borrow money without the intention of paying it back. The maxim behind their action would be “Whenever I believe myself short of money, I will borrow money and promise to pay it back, though I know that this will never be done” (Fieser, 178). According to Kant, a contradiction arises this maxim is viewed as a universal rule because if it were followed universally, “the whole institution of promising would be undermined and I couldn't make my promise to begin with” (Fieser, 178)

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7. What is the difference between a "means" and an "end"? And, what are the negative and positive components to the formula of the end itself?

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The difference between a “means” and an “end” is that we view a “means” as having instrumental value while an “end” is viewed as having inherent value. The negative component to the formula of the end itself is that “we should avoid treating people as a mere means” while the positive component is that “we should undertake to treat people as an end in themselves” (Fieser, 180).

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8. Give examples of both the internal and external contradictions as indicated in Kant's application of the categorical imperative.

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In Kant's application of the categorical imperative, two examples of internal contradictions are borrowing money without the intent to repay and committing suicide. Two examples of external contradictions are letting ones talents waste away and being uncharitable.

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9. What is a "maxim," and how do we construct one?

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A “maxim” is a guiding principle and it is constructed by determining the intention behind an action.

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10. According to Fieser, what two modifications did Kant make to his examples regarding the formula of the law of nature? And, when we modify Kant's examples, what does the formula of the law of nature tell us?

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According to Fieser, the two ways in which Kant modified his examples regarding the formula of the law of nature are by exposing his contradictions as external rather than internal and by universalizing his examples of external conflicts. When we modify Kant’s examples, the formula of the law of nature tells us that “an action is wrong if it violates a duty” or obligation (Fieser, 187).

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NATURAL & HUMAN RIGHTS

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Module 7 (Chapter 8)

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1. Which notions of rights are associated with the view that some rights are not invented by governments? And, what is the relation between natural law and natural rights?

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The notions of human, natural and moral rights are associated with the view that some rights are not invented by governments. The relationship between natural law and natural rights is that natural rights rest on laws or as Aquinas suggested “that the natural laws are articulated expressions of natural rights” (Fieser, Ch. 8, Moral Philosophy through the Ages).

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2. What is the uniquely modern notion of rights that was articulated by Grotius? And, For Hobbes, what does a "right of nature" involve?

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For Hugo Grotius, the uniquely modern notion of rights is described as “the moral qualities attached to a person” (Fieser, Ch. 8, Moral Philosophy through the Ages). And for Hobbes, the “right of nature involves a liberty to protect myself from attack in any possible way” (Fieser, Ch. 8, Moral Philosophy through the Ages).

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3. For Locke, what are the four principal rights that we have in the state of nature? In the state of nature, why can I kill a thief even if he doesn't show any intention to kill me?

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For Locke, the four principal rights that we have in the state of nature include “life, health, liberty, and possessions” (Fieser, Ch. 8, Moral Philosophy through the Ages). Furthermore, in the state of nature, I can kill a thief even if he doesn't show any intention to kill me because he has violated my right to life, declared war with me and there is no more room to reason with him. That is, “I must defend my rights in any way necessary” (Fieser, Ch.8, Moral Philosophy through the Ages).

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4. What is Locke's strict notion of slavery, and why does Locke oppose that form of slavery? What is Locke's notion of drudgery? And, According to Fieser, how might we alter Locke's theory to condemn drudgery?

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Locke's strict notion of slavery States “that one cannot voluntarily give you the right to kill him or her since one doesn't have the right to dispense with one's own life and Locke opposes to it because he believes the right to life is inalienable” (Fieser, Ch. 8, Moral Philosophy through the Ages). Also, Locke’s motion of drudgery is described as a “moderate form of servitude that doesn’t give the master control over the servant’s right to life” (Fieser, Ch. 8, Moral Philosophy through the Ages), which means, the servant loses his or her possessions; however retains the right to life. According to Fieser, we may alter Locke’s theory to condemn drudgery on the grounds that it violates our inalienable right to liberty.

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5. How do we acquire property? And, why does Locke believe that his formula for acquiring property also applies to acquiring land?

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We acquire property on a “first-come first-serve basis” (Fieser, Ch. 8, Moral Philosophy through the Ages) and, Locke believes that his formula for acquiring property also applies to acquiring land because “God has provided us with such a profusion of land” (Fieser, Ch. 8, Moral Philosophy through the Ages), meaning there will always be more

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6. What does the notion of liberty involve?

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According to the textbook, the notion of liberty involves “freedom from the arbitrary rule of some political authority” (Fieser, Ch. 8, Moral Philosophy through the Ages) and the reason why we surrender ourselves to forms of political authority is for protection.

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7. How can governments fall apart? Under what conditions can we overthrow a government?

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Governments can fall apart by being “conquered by an invading foreign power” (Fieser, Ch.8, Moral Philosophy though the Ages), or “the people may voluntarily disband it with the aim of replacing it with something better” (Fieser, Ch.8, Moral Philosophy through the Ages) and finally, by revolution.

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8. What rights are listed in the Virginia Declaration of Rights?

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The rights that are listed in the Virginia Declaration of Rights are the “rights to life, liberty, property, happiness, and safety” (Fieser, Ch.8, Moral Philosophy through the Ages).

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9. Burke states that in proportion as notions of natural rights are "metaphysically true," "they are morally and politically false." What does he mean by this?

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Burke states that in proportion as notions of natural rights are "metaphysically true," "they are morally and politically false” (Fieser, Ch.8, Moral Philosophy through the Ages). He means that the notions of natural rights are too simple and neat “metaphysically true” (Fieser, Ch.8, Moral Philosophy through the Ages). Nonetheless, due to their simplicity they fail to apply to the real world, "they are morally and politically false” (Fieser, Ch.8, Moral Philosophy through the Ages).

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10. Explain the distinction between freedom from and freedom to.

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The distinction between freedom from and freedom to is that Freedom from is “the freedom of different harms” (Fieser, Ch.8, Moral Philosophy through the Ages). And freedom to is, “the freedom of different liberties” (Fieser, Ch.8, Moral Philosophy through the Ages).

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11. For Bentham, what are the "facts" in which legal rights are grounded?

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For Bentham, the "facts" in which legal rights are grounded is “through government official’s dispositions and their enactment of the laws” (Fieser, Ch.8, Moral Philosophy through the Ages).

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12. According to Fieser, in what facts might we also ground natural rights?

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According to Fieser, the facts we may also ground in natural rights include “psychological facts involving culturally-shaped intuition, and community-oriented duties to help others” (Fieser, Ch.8, Moral Philosophy through the Ages).

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13. What does Marx mean by "egoistic man" and "species-being"?

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According to Marx, the egoistic man is “what one is when he or she acts in isolation of one another within the neutral territory of civil society, meaning not worrying or caring about anyone else” (Fieser, Ch.8, Moral Philosophy through the Ages). The species-being is when “one connects with other members of the same species in an extended family manner” (Fieser, Ch.8, Moral Philosophy through the Ages).

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14. Explain the distinction between negative rights and positive rights.

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Negative rights “are the rights to be left alone, including freedom to liberties and from harm; whereas, positive rights are the rights to other peoples help” (Fieser, Ch.8, Moral Philosophy through the Ages).

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15. What is Fieser's response to those who maintain that the Universal Declaration of Human Rights sets too high a standard? What is the interrelation between human rights and legal rights?

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Fieser's response to those who maintain that the Universal Declaration of Human Rights sets too high a standard is that “all standards of morality are invalid since few people have perfect moral conduct” (Fieser, Ch.8, Moral Philosophy through the Ages). Furthermore, the interrelation between human rights and legal rights is “that our legal rights are drawn from our most basic intuitions about human rights” (Fieser, Ch.8, Moral Philosophy through the Ages). And our intuitions about human rights are drawn from the refined discussions of legal rights.

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SOCIAL CONTRACT THEORY

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Module 8 Assignment (Chapter 6)

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1. According to some antigovernment groups, what is the principle reason that we establish governments?

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The principle reason that we establish governments to perform only a particular range of tasks, principally protection from foreign invasion.

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2. What is the "disease" and what is the "cure" as described by social contract theory?

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Social contract theory describes disease as humans that have unsociable tendencies and are unable to construct and live in cooperative cities. The cure is that we contractually agree to be civil to one another.

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3. According to Glaucon in Plato's dialog, under what conditions do I agree not to exploit you?

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According to Glaucon, people agreed to not exploit others under the condition that others don’t exploit them.

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4. Why does Hobbes refer to the government as a "leviathan"? Why does Hobbes think that we are equal both physically and intellectually in the state of nature?

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Hobbes refers to the government as a "leviathan" because he views it as “the king over prideful people” much like the biblical creature was "king over all the children of pride" (Fieser, 94). Intellectually, Hobbes thinks that we are equal in the state of nature as “we all gain knowledge through experience, and given enough time and effort, we can all rise to a comparable intellectual level” (Fieser, 95). Physically, he believes that “as to the strength of body, the weakest has strength enough to kill the strongest, either by secret mechination, or by confederacy with others that are in the same danger with himself” (Fieser, 95).

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5. What are the three causes of quarrel in the state of nature? What examples does Hobbes give to prove his gloomy description of human nature?

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The first quarrel in the state of nature is “we equally desire things that are in limited supply”; the second is “once we acquire some goods, we immediately become distrustful of people who approach us, and so we attack them”; the third is “we will attack others simply to preserve our reputations as tough guys that people shouldn't mess around with” (Fieser, 95). Hobbes gives examples such as taking guns for protection on trips, locking our cabinets at night to prevent people stealing from us, and taking extra steps to protect ourselves to prove his gloomy description of human nature (Fieser, 96).

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4. What are the first three laws of nature? According to Hobbes, why can't we overthrow governments? What are the two features of Hobbes's account of morality?

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The first law of nature is that we should seek peace and defend ourselves if we cannot achieve it. The second law of nature is that we should agree to give up our rights to defend ourselves if those rights threatens each of us respectively (Fieser, 97). The third law of nature is that “people perform their covenants made” as “our agreements are empty words if we don't keep them” (Fieser, 98). Hobbes believes that we cannot overthrow governments because they are tasked with keeping the peace. The two features of Hobbes’s account of morality are that “the job of moral philosophy is to find out specifically which virtuous character traits facilitate adherence to the various laws of nature” and “our job as morally responsible people is to cultivate virtuous character traits since, if we don't, we place the peace of society at risk” (Fieser, 99).

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5. What is the state of nature like according to Pufendorf , Locke, and Rousseau, respectively?

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According to Pufendorf, the basic terms of the social contract were set by God who mandated that we should be sociable. Locke believed that the state of nature is “an environment in which we have God-given natural rights to life, health, liberty, and possessions” (Fieser, 100). According to Rousseau, the state of nature is “a condition of individual freedom in which creativity flourishes” (Fieser, 100).

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9. What are Hyde's two main complaints about Hobbes?

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Hyde accuses Hobbes of actually denying the immutable and eternal nature of morality. Moreover, he claims that Hobbes tries to flimflam us by describing the laws of nature as immutable and eternal when Hobbes clearly doesn’t mean it.

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6. In Hobbes's attempt to scientifically redefine traditional moral vocabulary, what does he mean when he says that the laws of nature are "immutable and eternal"?

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When Hobbes says the laws of nature are "immutable and eternal," he means that they are unchangeable as they are required for the preservation of life through peacemaking (Fieser, 102).

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7. According to Locke, when do we tacitly agree to a social contract?

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According to Locke, if we obtain any possession or benefit from the government, we have tacitly agreed to a social contract (Fieser, 104).

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8. According to Hume, how do governments trick us into accepting authority?

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According to Hume, governments trick us into accepting authority by claiming that “many years ago an earlier generation of citizens tacitly consented to a specific government,” which in turn gives governments the inheritance of that authority (Fieser, 104).

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13. What is the point of the prisoner's dilemma?

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The prisoner’s dilemma is a paradox in decision analysis in which two individuals acting in their own best interest pursue a course of action that does not result in the ideal outcome.

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9. What is the "original position" for Rawls? What does Rawls's first rule of justice tell us? And, according to Rawls's second rule of justice, what is the main rule by which we regulate the unequal accumulation of wealth and power?

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Rawls “original position” is described in his book “A Theory of Justice” and it states that “we are neither at war with one another nor trying to start a government,” rather, “we are merely a group of rational, equal, and self-interested people who want to devise mutually beneficial moral guidelines for reforming our social system” (Fieser, 106). According to Rawls's second rule of justice, the main rule by which we regulate the unequal accumulation of wealth and power is that a person can have an unequal amount of money so long as such a capitalist economic system benefits everyone including poor people.

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10. Explain the difference between occurrent and dispositional mental states. What is the difference between consenting to a social contract and being content with social reciprocity?

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An occurrent mental state primarily occurs during a short, fixed, time period. A dispositional mental state is long-term and persistent. Consenting to a social contract involves “a distinct mental act of consent that occurs at a distinct time” while being content with social reciprocity “requires only a long-term mental viewpoint of contentment” (Fieser, 108). OR Occurrent is being observable. Meanwhile, dispositional is having an emotional outlook or mood.