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68 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is a policy?
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A generally agreed to purposeful
course of action that has important consequences for a large number of people and for a significant number and magnitude of resources. |
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Five elements of policy: #1
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Provides purposeful direction
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Five elements of policy: #2
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Regulates patterns of decisions and
actions over time |
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Five elements of policy: #3
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Followed by a set of actors
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Five elements of policy: #4
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Made to deal with some problem or
address concerns and issues |
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Five elements of policy: #5
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Reflects society’s choices
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Why do we need policy?
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•Environmental issues often represent public or collective goods/problems.
•Issues are rarely resolved through purely private actions. •Market forces work to efficiently allocate resources; policy attempts to equitably distribute resources. |
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Policy Characteristics:
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•Tend to be vague and ambiguously stated
- Accommodate different resource and administrative conditions. - Accommodate different views about resource use and management. |
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Policy Characteristics:
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•Changes modestly in small increments
- Accommodates political feasibility - Accommodates cost of errors |
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Policy Characteristics:
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•Appearance of a disorderly processes
- Multiple actors; random political forces |
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Policy Characteristics:
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•Merits judged by diverse set of standards and rules
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Policy Characteristics:
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• Frequently are inconsistent and
contradictory |
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Policy Characteristics:
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•Represent a compromise of intensely held values
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Pluralist Model of Agenda Setting:
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- Amount of power based on size of group and its access to resources
- Multiple centers of power - Values shared by masses and elite - High social mobility and mass input into decision making - Individuals can influence elites - Outcome depends on compromise among competing groups |
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Elitist Model of Agenda Setting:
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- Amount of power centered in hands of the few
- Few centers of power - Values differ between masses and elite - Low social mobility and mass input into decision making - Individuals cannot influence apathetic elites - Outcome top-down (dictate policy) |
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What is issue expansion?
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When one group is at a disadvantage, it will attempt to draw more people and ideas into the struggle.
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Preventing Expansion:
Direct Attack - Group Oriented |
Limit Appeal and Attractiveness of Group
- Discredit and caste doubt on group and its leaders |
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Preventing Expansion:
Indirect Attack - Group Oriented |
Undermine/Subvert Group
- Appeal to members of group - Co-opt leaders of group |
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Preventing Expansion:
Direct Attack - Issue Oriented |
Defuse Issue
- Make symbolic assurances - Carry out "token" actions - Take anticipatory actions4 |
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Preventing Expansion:
Indirect Attack - Issue Oriented |
Blur or Obscure Issue
- Fake a constraint or limitation - Postpone/delay action |
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Types of Policy Formulation (3):
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• Routine–repetitive process of
reformulating policy options (budgets) • Analogous–replicating policies formulated for similar issues • Creative–use of unprecedented alternatives that make significant breaks from the past |
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Policy Option Characteristics to Avoid (3):
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• Unrealistic–overly ambitious and
unlikely to be accomplished • Administrative resistance– opposition to suggested policy by implementing agency • Financially impractical –costs greatly exceed available resources or intended benefits |
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Where do policy options come from? (6):
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• Creativity and imagination of experts
• Deductive reasoning • Knowledgeable and experienced authorities • Issue advocates • Institutional sources • Communities of formulators (commissions, agencies, research organizations, Universities, legislative offices, and interest groups) |
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The Four Policy Option Models: (list)
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• Rational-comprehensive model
• Incremental model • Mixed scanning model • Organized-anarchy model |
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Characteristics of the Rational-Comprehensive Model:
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- Explicit and accurate statements of intent, objectives, and policy goals
- Comprehensive identification of policy alternatives to achieve goals and objectives - Identification of all costs and benefits associated with policy alternatives with contributing factors - Rigorous and exacting valuation of benefits and costs - Calculation of relevant decision criteria - Selection of a policy alternative that meets or exceeds relevant decision criteria |
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Characteristics of the Incremental Model:
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• Policy intent and goals are defined vaguely
• Only workable or possibly successful policies considered • Formulated policies are strongly advocated for by knowledgeable persons • Policy changes are incrementally small • Criteria for selection from among formulated policy options is agreement |
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Characteristics of the Mixed Scanning Model:
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• Preliminary and general review of a wide range of policy options (incremental)
• Detailed examination of those options considered worthy of additional in-depth assessment (comprehensive) |
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Characteristics of the Organized Anarchy Model:
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• Policy selection occurs in an unorganized setting without clear intentions
• Policy selection only occurs when: - An issue requires a solution - Individual/organization have a vested interest - Policy makers emerge to deal with the issue |
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Criteria for selection among alternatives (4):
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• Technical and ecological
• Efficiency and effectiveness • Ethical and equity • Procedural—due process |
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Collaboration (definition):
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The pooling together of appreciations and or tangible resources (information, money, labor) by two or more stakeholders to solve a set of problems which neither can solve individually.
Implies joint decision-making where power is shared, and stakeholders take responsibility for actions and outcomes. |
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Collaborating assumes... (4):
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• Participants are reasonable people seeking community-wide solutions
• Willingness to compromise and reach agreement (consensus or majority) • Better off once agreement is reached • Locals are better at solving "local" problems |
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Criticisms of Collaboration (6):
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• Attrition –time consuming; wears down people to the point of quitting
• Lockout –relevant stakeholders excluded • Process –great amount of time spent on procedures as opposed to outcomes • Delay –defer or avoid making decisions • Non-committal –participants have no reason to commit to agreements • Power –some people are more influential because of access to information or resources |
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Bargaining (definition):
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Process whereby two or more persons or organizations in a position of power adjust their goals to attain an alternative or policy that is acceptable to both –though may not be ideal to each.
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Characteristics of Bargaining (4):
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• Multiple parties are involved
• Parties are in conflict • Freely engage in the process • Parties willingly modify their positions |
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Conditions that make successful bargaining (6):
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• Cooperation and agreement is desirable
• Trust among parties involved • Existence of a mutually acceptable outcome • Equal perception of power/ status • Statements represent actual benefits • Positive attitude toward differences |
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Consensus-Driven Processes (3):
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• Negotiation
• Facilitation • Mediation |
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Adversarial-Driven Processes (2):
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• Arbitration
• Judicial Proceedings |
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Types of Policy (7):
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• Legislative
• Position Statements • Public Law • Congressional Appropriations (budgets) • Judicial Decisions (ex. the Endangered Species Act) • Agency Regulations/Programs • Executive Order (ex. Theodore Roosevelt's establishment of the NPS) |
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Agenda (Definition):
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A set of issues of concern to someone or some organization.
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Formal (institutional) Agenda (definition):
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• Explicit issues that are up for active and serious consideration by some organization that has authority to deal with the issue (ex. the EPA)
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Systematic Agenda (definition):
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• consists of all the issues the public thinks are deserving of attention at any particular time
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Circumstances that Determine Agenda Status (8):
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• Triggering Events (ex. Love Canal)
• Initiators ("issue entrepreneurs") • Number of People Affected (salience) • Gatekeepers to Information • Relevant Public Attentiveness • Symbols (ex. WWF Panda) • Group organization • "Iron Triangle" - representatives, corporate lobbyists, and political appointees exclude everyone else |
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Implementation (definition):
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Process of translating legitimized
policies into operational programs. |
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Major Implementation Considerations (3):
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• Interpretation–how to translate broad statements of policy into specific targets and workable directives
• Organization–designing or designating agencies and departments to carry out policies and programs • Application–who are the actual delivers of goods and services |
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Factors of Success in Implementation (8):
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• Clear Intent with Specific Goals
• Cause-and-Effect Linkage • Measurable Standards • Active Program Monitoring • Agency Commitment and Resources • Executive and Legislative Commitment • Benefits Outweigh Costs • Direct Federal Involvement |
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Monitoring (definition):
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Repeated measurement of variables
over time to determine if actions have contributed to or achieved expected outcomes. Monitoring ultimately informs adaptation and adoption of policies for improved outcomes while also helping assess whether program goals are being met. |
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Types of Monitoring Types (3):
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• Implementation - policy accomplishing what was intended?
• Effectiveness - policy goals met? • Validation - were the original policy assumptions correct? |
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Types of Interest Groups (6):
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•Industry-Trade Associations (AFL-CIO)
•Professional Associations and Research Groups (SAF) •Citizen Interest Groups (Greenpeace) •Political Action Committees (PACs) (NRA) •Private Corporations (3M) •Inter-Governmental Lobbying |
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Interest Group Challenges (8):
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•Establishing priorities for action
•Presenting effective policy responses •Presenting consistent policy choices among collaborating interest groups •Controlling group spokespersons •Maintaining financial stability •Internal conflicts over direction •Inclusion of multiple segments of society •Attracting and retaining members |
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Factors Influencing Public Opinion (4):
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• Salience of issue relative to other issues
• Selective attention • Ambivalence and knowledge of issue • Issue framing |
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Public Relations (definition):
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Public relations is a systematic process of communication that involves identification of discrete publics and the tailoring of specific messages to them
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Characteristics of Federal Legislative Authority (5):
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• Citizen Representation
• Enact Legislation • Raise and Allocate Funds • Provide Oversight • Limitations |
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Federal Legislative Authority can Enact Legislation that can... (5):
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• Naturalization and immigration
• Grant patents • Declaration of war • Regulate commerce • Passage of laws, bills, acts, statutes |
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Federal Legislative Authority can Raise and Allocate Funds that can... (3):
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• Raise revenues –taxes, sell assets, lottery
• Appropriate expenditures (vs. authorize) • Develop budgets |
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Federal Legislative Authority can Provide Oversight that can... (3):
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• Conduct hearings to review programs or policies
• Information may lead to changes in the enabling legislation or in administrative rules for implementing legislation • Government Accountability Office (GAO), Congressional Research Service |
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Federal Legislative Authority has Limitations such as... (3):
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• Constitutional authority– Bill of Rights
• Judicial review– courts may review legislation enacted by Congress to determine constitutional compliance • Executive veto, executive agency implementation |
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Types of Law (6):
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• Public
• Private • Substantiative • Procedural • Civil Sanctions • Criminal Sanctions |
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Types of Law: Public Law
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• Constitutional law
• Administrative law (rulemaking) • Criminal law |
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Types of Law: Private Law
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• Legal relationships between individuals or firms (contracts, property)
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Types of Law: Substantiative Law
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• Defines legal relationships between one person and another, or between persons and the state
• Defines rights and duties (includes harming an endangered species) |
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Types of Law: Procedural Law
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• Deal with the methods and means by which substantive law is made and administered
• Means to enforce rights and duties (includes requiring an EIS) |
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Types of Law: Civil Sanctions
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• Suites between private/public parties (individuals, corporations, or government agencies)
• Includes violation of contracts of commercial agreements |
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Types of Law: Criminal Sanctions4
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• Enforce citizens' duties to society (includes illegal dumping of toxic wastes)
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The Federal Court System:
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• Structured around Article III of the Constitutions
- U.S. Supreme Court - U.S. Court of Appeals - U.S. District Courts - U.S. Court of Federal Claims - U.S. Court of International Trade • President nominates judges that are confirmed by the Senate • Hears issues that deal with the constitution and those between the states |
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The State Court System:
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• Established by the state's constitution and laws
- State Supreme Court - Court of Appeals - Circuit District courts - Specialized courts that handle specific legal matters • Only certain cases are eligible to be sent to the U.S. Supreme Court • Judges popularly elected or appointed for life • Hears "normal" cases (criminal, civil, etc.) |
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How do courts shape policy? (6):
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• Standards of review used
• Determine who has standing • Decide what cases are ready for review • Interpret applicable laws • Choose magnitude of penalty |
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Standards of Review Used (3):
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• Deference given to agency's interpretation of laws
• Appropriateness of information used to make a decision • Review discretionary powers: - agency done a careful job or analyzing information? - were interests/information weighted fairly? |
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Court Decisions Are Influenced by...(5):
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• State of the Law - rules for interpreting statutes
• Public Opinion • Litigants and Interest Groups • Congressional Expansion/Narrowing of Jurisdiction • Presidential appointments |
