Reading...
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88 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
- 3rd side (hint)
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8 principles for teaching reading
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1 ability to exploit reader's background knowledge; 2 build a strong vocabulary, 3 teach for comprehension, 4 work on increasing reading rate, 5 teach reading strategies - scanning, skimming, predicting, id main ideas, 6 transform strategies into skills, 7 build assessment and evaluation into your teaching, 8 strive for continuous improvements as a reading teacher.
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not the a. c. t. i . v . e
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define reading
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fluent process of combining info from text and reader's background to build meaning
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what is the goal of reading
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comprehension, expand knowledge
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name 5 concepts that are central to understanding reading
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silent reading; interactive models of reading; reading fluency, extensive reading, and intensive reading
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fluent reading
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rapid, purposeful, effective, comprehending, flexible, and gradually developing - Grabe 1991
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appropriate rate with adequate comprehension
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define strategies
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conscious actions that leaner's take to achieve desired goals or objectives
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pedagogical techniques that 2L teachers can use to teach learners who are already literate in at least one other language and are learning to read in a 2L
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silent reading-post reading comprehension testing; bottom-up, top down, interactive, phonics, and intensive, extensive, a.c.t.i.v.e. principles of reading.
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silent, bottom, top, interactive, phonics, and (intensive, extensive)
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meaningful reading
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point where strategy, fluency, text and reader overlap/intersect
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reading is composed of four elements
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strategy, text, reader, fluency
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4 processes / models
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bottom-up, top-down, interactive, phonics
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2 sub processes
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extensive, intensive reading
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top down or meanings-based approach
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prediction, confirmation content,
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key features that highlight a meaning-based approach are:
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using literature, student-centered, reading integrated with writing, constructing meaning
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strategic reading
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ability of reader to use wide variety of reading strategies
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reading strategies
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skimming, guessing or skipping difficult words, predicting meaning
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define silent reading
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reading done internally without vocalization by reader
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define interactive models of reading
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use of top down - gist, and bottom up -word analysis, grammatical structure together
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define reading fluency
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adequate rate adequate comprehension
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define extensive reading
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long passage reading regarding gist of text
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define intensive reading
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short passage taken to depths of each word for full and accurate meaning -
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identify and explain 7 key principles related to second language reading
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activate prior knowledge; cultivate vocab; teach for comprehension; increase reading rate; teach reading strategies; transform strategies into skills; build assessment & eval into teaching
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name 7 key principles related to second language reading
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activate prior knowledge; cultivate vocab; teach for comprehension; increase reading rate; teach reading strategies; transform strategies into skills; build assessment & eval into teaching
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demonstrate familiarity with practical classroom techniques for teaching reading
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a- c- t- i- v -e: anticipation guide, word web; modeling inference; repeated reading-faster, questions that verify strategy (think aloud protocol)- what are you trying to do? what strategy? why this strategy? is it working? What other strategies are avi?; reading journals record results of other classroom activities as to impact on reading principles..
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set goals for improving your ability to teach 2L reading
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essential for development as 2L teacher
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bottom-up reading model
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consist of lower level reading processes
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letter & sound recognition, morpheme recognition, word recognition, sentences
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reading fundamentals progress
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letter and sound recognition; morpheme recognition; word decode/recognition/comprehension, id grammatical structures, sentences, and text
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phonics approach
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word recognition through sounding out word parts
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supports bottom up approach
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recommended materiel for bottom approach
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graded reader
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appropriate vocab and sounds for level
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intensive reading
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exploring all levels of written language from sounds to discourse including examing the passage in conjunction with its morphemes, words, phrases, sentences, text, discourse to exract meaning
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short reading passage followed by textbook activities to build comprehension; approach used by most 2L & 1L textbooks to teach reading
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top-down reading model
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reader uses background knowledge, makes predictions, and searches text to confirm/reject prediction
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passage maybe understood even when all he individual words are not
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focus of top down approach
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meaning
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literature based-wide range of vocab, student centered-reader choosing text, reading integrated with writing; constructing meaning-
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extensive reading
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longer reading passages, varied topics no drilling down to morpheme or word level
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intensive v extensive
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bottom-up v top down reading approaches
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depth v breath
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interactive approach
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both intensive and extensive reading;
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characteristics of bottom-up reading
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translating, literal meaning, grammar, 100% vocab
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characteristics of top-down reading
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gist/context general meaning
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8 principles for teaching reading
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1-exploit readers background knowledge - have them read familiar topics, intuitive topics; 2-build strong vocab base - study, use context; 3-teach comprehension - questioning the author; 4-work on increasing the reading rate - focus s/b on fluency (200 wpm-70% comprehension) not 100% accurate readers or speed readers; 5-teach reading strategies,
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vocab acquisition methods
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explicit study, context
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ways of decoding words to extract meaning
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cognition
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thinking
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meta cognition
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thinking about thinking
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comprehension
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understanding the meaning of communication
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emphasis monitoring of more than testing of
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questioning the author
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good tool for engaging students in thinking about text, developing ideas rather than just retrieving information
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Reading is often thought of as a hierarchy of skills, from
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processing of individual letters and their associated sounds to word recognition to text-processing competencies.
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Skilled comprehension requires
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fluid articulation of all these processes, beginning with the sounding out and recognition of individual words to the understanding of sentences in paragraphs as part of much longer texts.
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There is instruction at all of these levels that can be carried out so as to increase student understanding of what is read.
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decoding, vocabulary, world knowledge, Active comprehension strategies, Monitoring
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Based on research, a strong case can be made for doing the following in order to improve reading comprehension in students:
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Teach decoding skills, Teach vocabulary, Word knowledge-Encourage students to build world knowledge, question the author-through reading and to relate what they know to what they read (e.g., by asking "Why?" questions about factual knowledge in text);
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question the author
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through reading and to relate what they know to what they read (e.g., by asking "Why?" questions about factual knowledge in text).
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A key component in transactional strategies instruction
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is monitoring.
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Active comprehension strategies
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strategies, including prediction, analyzing stories with respect to story grammar elements, question asking, image construction, and summarizing.
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p, a, q, ic, s
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As it turns out, however, when reading educators conducted experiments in which vocabulary was either taught to students or not,
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comprehension improved as a function of ( ) instruction. Perhaps the most widely cited experiment of this type was carried out by Isabel Beck and her associates, who taught Grade 4 children a corpus of 104 words over a 5-month period (Beck, Perfetti, & McKeown, 1982). The children who received instruction outperformed noninstructed children on subsequent comprehension tests. When all of the work of Beck's group and others is considered (see, e.g., Beck & McKeown, 1991; Durso & Coggins, 1991), a good case can be made that when students are taught ( ) in a thorough fashion, their comprehension of what they read improves.
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Decoding
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assocuiating sounds, words, phrases, sentences and text with a meaning. Perhaps it is a truism, but students cannot understand texts if they cannot read the words.
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Before they can read the words, they have to be aware of the letters and the sounds represented by letters so that sounding out and blending of sounds can occur to pronounce words (see, e.g., Nicholson, 1991).
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Even the first such package, reciprocal teaching (Palincsar & Brown, 1984), included the
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clarification strategy: When readers did not understand a text, they were taught to seek clarification, often through rereading.
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Fluent (i.e., automatic) word recognition consumes little cognitive capacity, freeing up the child's cognitive capacity for understanding what is read.
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Anyone who has ever taught elementary children and witnessed round-robin reading can recall students who could sound out a story with great effort but at the end had no idea of what had been read.
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Following the instruction, the students read a passage containing the words and answered comprehension questions about it. The students who had learned to recognize the words to the point of automaticity
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answered more comprehension questions than did students who experienced instruction emphasizing individual word meanings.
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Consistent with other analyses (e.g., Breznitz, 1997a, 1997b), Tan and Nicholson's outcome made obvious that development of fluent word-recognition skills can make an important difference in students' understanding of what they read.
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Good readers are also aware of the occasions when they are
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confused, when text does not make sense (Baker & Brown, 1984).
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Good readers:
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1 are aware of wift; 2 tend to overview text before reading; 3 make predictions; 4 read selectively - intending to confirm predictions; 5 associate ideas to schema; 6 -note whether predictions and expectations were met; 7 - revise knowledge; 8 - figure out vocabulary; 9 - underline and reread points; 10 - interpret the text; 11 - evaluate its quality; 12 - review points as they conclude; 13 - and think about ideas encountered
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wifm and 12 other "habits/strategies." Young and less skilled readers, in contrast, exhibit a lack of such activity (e.g., Cordón & Day, 1996).
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Good readers are extremely
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active as they read,
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as is apparent whenever excellent adult readers are asked to think aloud as they go through text (Pressley & Afflerbach, 1995).
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Hence, researchers moved on to teaching students to use the individual strategies
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together, articulating them in a self-regulated fashion (i.e., using them on their own, rather than only on cue from the teacher).
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In general, such packages proved teachable, beginning with reciprocal teaching, the first such intervention (Palincsar & Brown, 1984), and continuing through more flexible approaches that began with extensive teacher explanation and modeling of strategies, followed by teacher-scaffolded use of the strategies, and culminating in student self-regulated use of the strategies during regular reading (e.g., Anderson, 1992; Brown, Pressley, Van Meter, & Schuder, 1996; Duffy et al., 1987).
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It is well established that good comprehenders tend to have good
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vocabularies (Anderson & Freebody, 1991; Nagy, Anderson, & Herman, 1987).
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This correlation, however, does not mean that teaching ( ) will increase readers' comprehension, for that is a causal conclusion.
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Monitoring comprehension
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Encourage students to be aware of their comprehension, noting explicitly whether decoded words make sense and whether the text itself makes sense; Good readers know when they need to exert more effort to make sense of a text.
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When problems are detected, students should know that they need to reprocess and repair (e.g., by attempting to sound out problematic words again or rereading). For example, they know when to expend more decoding effort – they are aware when they have sounded out a word but that word does not really make sense in the context (Isakson & Miller, 1976). When good readers have that feeling, they try rereading the word in question. It makes sense to teach young readers to ( ) their reading of words in this way (Baker & Brown, 1984). Contemporary approaches to word-recognition instruction also include a ( ) approach, with readers taught to pay attention to whether the decoding makes sense and to try decoding again when the word as decoded is not in synchrony with other ideas in the text and pictures (e.g., Iversen & Tunmer, 1993).
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How do excellent readers use reading strategies (prediction, scaning, questioning, summarizing, associating:
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usually more than one at a time, nor do they use them simply when under strong instructional control – which was the situation in virtually all investigations of individual strategies.
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conscious actions,
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Of course, reading educators have paid enormous attention to the development of children's
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word-recognition skills because they recognize that such skills are critical to the development of skilled comprehenders.
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As part of such work, LaBerge and Samuels (1974) made a fundamental discovery. Being able to sound out a word does not guarantee that the word will be understood as the child reads.
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Once pronounced, the good reader notices
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whether the word as recognized makes sense in the sentence and the text context being read and, if it does not, takes another look at the word to check if it might have been misread (e.g., Gough, 1983, 1984).
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One counterargument to this advice to teach vocabulary is that children learn vocabulary
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incidentally – that is, they learn the meanings of many words by experiencing those words in the actual world and in text worlds, without explicit instruction (Stanovich, 1986; Sternberg, 1987).
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Even so, such incidental learning is filled with potential pitfalls, for the meanings learned range from richly contextualized and more than adequate to incomplete to wrong (Miller & Gildea, 1987). Just the other morning, I sat in a reading class as a teacher asked students to guess the meanings of new words encountered in a story, based on text and picture clues. Many of the definitions offered by the children were way off. Anyone who has ever taught young children knows that they benefit from explicit teaching of ( ).
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Reading comprehension can be affected by
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world knowledge, with many demonstrations that readers who possess rich prior knowledge about the topic of a reading often understand the reading better than classmates with low prior knowledge (Anderson & Pearson, 1984).
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That said, readers do not always relate their ( ) to the content of a text, even when they possess ( ) relevant to the information it presents. Often, they do not make inferences based on prior ( ) unless the inferences are absolutely demanded to make sense of the text (McKoon & Ratcliff, 1992).
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Reading researchers have developed approaches to stimulating active reading by teaching readers to use comprehension strategies. Of the many possible strategies, the following often produce improved memory and comprehension of text in children:
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generate ideas, images; id characters, issues, summaries, and analysis during reading,
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generating questions about ideas in text while reading; constructing mental images representing ideas in text; summarizing; and analyzing stories read into story grammar components of setting, characters, problems encountered by characters, attempts at solution, successful solution, and ending (Pearson & Dole, 1987; Pearson & Fielding, 1991; Pressley, Johnson, Symons, McGoldrick, & Kurita, 1989).
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reading skills that improve comprehension
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decoding, vocabulary, world knowledge, active comprehension strategies, monitoring
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Tan and Nicholson (1997) carried out a study that emphasized the importance of word-recognition instruction to the point of fluency.
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In their study, struggling primary-level readers were taught 10 new words, with instruction either emphasizing word recognition to the point of fluency (they practiced reading the individual words until they could recognize them automatically) or understanding of the words (instruction involving mostly student-teacher discussions about word meanings).
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That children do develop knowledge of vocabulary through incidental contact with new words they read is one of the many reasons to encourage students to
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read extensively, use interactive approach
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Whenever researchers have looked, they have found ( ) increases as a function of children's reading of text rich in new words (e.g., Dickinson & Smith, 1994; Elley, 1989; Morrow, Pressley, Smith, & Smith, 1997; Pelligrini, Galda, Perlmutter, & Jones, 1994; Robbins & Ehri, 1994; Rosenhouse, Feitelson, Kita, & Goldstein, 1997).
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The case is very strong that teaching elementary, middle school, and high school students to
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use a repertoire of comprehension strategies increases their comprehension of text. Teachers should model and explain
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comprehension strategies, have their students practice using such strategies with teacher support, and let students know they are expected to continue using the strategies when reading on their own.
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The lesson that emerged from these studies is that readers should be encouraged to ( ) to information-rich texts they are reading, with a potent mechanism for doing this being
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relate what they know, elaborative interrogation.
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The more recent, more flexible form of this instruction came to be known as
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transactional strategies instruction (Pressley et al., 1992), with the body of research on this approach recently cited by the National Reading Panel (2000) as exemplary work in comprehension instruction.
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When such instruction has been successful, it has always been long term, occurring over a semester or school year at minimum, with consistent and striking benefits.
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The received wisdom in recent decades, largely based on the work of Richard C. Anderson, P. David Pearson, and their colleagues at the Center for the Study of Reading at the University of Illinois in the 1970s, 1980s, and into the early 1990s, was that reading comprehension can be enhanced by developing reader's
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prior knowledge.
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One way to accomplish this is to encourage extensive reading of high-quality, information-rich texts by young readers (e.g., Stanovich & Cunningham, 1993).
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Thus, a first recommendation to educators who want to improve students' comprehension skills is to teach them to
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decode well. Explicit instruction in sounding out words, which has been so well validated as helping many children to recognize words more certainly (word recognition skills) (e.g., Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998, online document),
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is a start in developing good comprehenders – but it is just a start. skills must be developed to the point of fluency if comprehension benefits are to be maximized.
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To improve children's reading and comprehension, it makes very good sense to teach them to monitor as they read, to ask themselves consistently,
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Is what I am reading making sense? Children also need to be taught that they can do something about it when text seems not to make sense: At a minimum, they can try sounding out a puzzling word again or rereading the part of a text that seems confusing.
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use any and all startegies to move pass impass - questions, soundeing out, in other words top, bittom and interactive models.
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Typically, however, when readers process text containing new factual information, they do not automatically
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relate that information to their prior knowledge, even if they have a wealth of knowledge that could be related. In many cases, more is needed for prior knowledge to be beneficial in reading comprehension.
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A large number of experiments conducted in the late 1980s and early 1990s demonstrated the power of "Why?" questions, or "elaborative interrogation," to encourage readers to orient to their prior knowledge as they read (Pressley, Wood, Woloshyn, Martin, King, & Menke, 1992). In these studies, readers were encouraged to ask themselves why the facts being presented in text made sense. This encouragement consistently produced a huge effect on memory of the texts, with the most compelling explanation emerging from analytical experiments being that the interrogation oriented readers to prior knowledge that could explain the facts being encountered (see especially Martin & Pressley, 1991).
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Vocabulary
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reservoir of peviously decoded words
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When children are first learning to sound out words, it requires
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real mental effort. The more effort required, the less consciousness left over for other cognitive operations, including comprehension of the words being processed.
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Thus, LaBerge and Samuels' analyses made clear that it was critical for children to develop fluency in word recognition.
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World knowledge
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helpful in comprehension as to predicting and vocab
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value of comprehension skills:
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instruction that develops these interrelated skills (sd, v, wk,ac, m) hould improve comprehension.
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Such instruction must be long term, for there is much to teach and much for young readers to practice.
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List active reading strategies.
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1 question; 2 visualize; 3 predict; 4 connect; 5 respond;
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List classroom techniques and tasks for implementing reading in the classroom as epitomized by the teaching system described in Chapter 4.
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A ctivate prior knowledge;
C ultivate vocabulary T teach for comprehension I increase reading speed V erify reading strategies E valuate progress |
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How do you activate a reader's prior knowledge?
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tbd
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How do you cultivate/build vocabulary?
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through use - producing or receiving or deliberate through study.
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How do you teach comprehension?
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tbd
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How do you increase reading speed? Why?
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tbd
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How do you verify reading strategies?
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tbd
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How do you evaluate progress?
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tbd
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