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56 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Amygdala
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The amygdala is a substructure of the limbic system and is involved in the control of emotional activies, including the mediation of defensive-aggressive behaviors and attachment of emotions to memories
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Basal Ganglia
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The basal ganglia are subcortical structures (caudate necleus, putamen, globus pallidus, and substantia nigra) that are involved in planning, organizing, and coordinating voluntary movements. Damage to the basal ganglia is associated with Huntington's disease and Parkinson's disease.
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Hypertension
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There are two types of hypertension. Primary (essential) hypedrtension is diagnosed when high blood pressure is not due to a known physiological cause, while secondary hypertension is diagnosed when elevated blood pressure is related to a known disease. Primary hypertension accounts for about 85 to 90% of all cases of high blood pressure; untreated, it can lead to cardiovascular disease, and it is a major cause of heart failure, kidney failure, and stroke.
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Mood Stabilizing Drugs
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Mood stabilizing drugs are used to alleviate mania and mood swings in Bipolar Disorder and include lithium and anti-convulsants (e.g., carbamazepine).
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Parkinson's Disease
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Parkinson's disease is a progressive degenerative disease characterized by tremor, muscular rigidity, akathisia, akinesia, and speech difficulties; it may eventually include dementia. Symptoms are temporarily relieved by L-dopa, a dopamine agonist. Parkinson's disease is believed to be due to degeneration of dopamine-containing cells, especially in the substantia nigra.
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Sex Hormones
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The pituitary gland and the gonads (ovaries and testes) are the primary sources of the sex hormones: The pituitary gland produces the gonadotropic hormones; the ovaries secrete estrogen and progesterone, and the testes secrete two types of androgens, testosterone and androstenedione.
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Temporal Lobe
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The temporal lobe contains the primary auditory cortex. Damage can result in auditory agnosia, Wenicke's (receptive) aphasia, cortical deafness, and/or impairments in long-term memory.
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Anosognosia
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Anosognosia is most often caused by brain trauma that affects the right parietal lobe and involves a lack of awareness of one's symptoms on the left side of the body.
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Beta-Blockers
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Beta-blockers (e.g., propranolol) block or diminish the cardiovascular excitatory response to the hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine. They are used to treat cardiovascular disorders, glaucoma, and migraine headache and are also useful for reducing the physical symptoms of anxiety.
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Hyperthyroidism and Hypothyroidism
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Hyperthyroidism is caused by hypersecretion of thyroxine by the thyroid gland and is characterized by a speeded-up metabolism, elevated body temperature, accelerated heart rate, increased appetite with weight loss, exophthalmos, nervousness, and insomnia. Hypothyroidism is caused by hyposecretion of thyroxine and involves a slowed metabolism, slowed heart rate, lethargy, lowered body temperature, impaired concentration and memory, and depression.
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Multiple Scerosis
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Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is a progressive disease of the nervous system that involves a degeneration of myelin that surrounds nerve fibers in the central nervous system. Common initial symptoms are optic neurities, motor impairments, sensory abnormalities, and fatigue. Additional symptoms that arise as the disease progresses include tremors, speech problems, mood symptoms, and cognitive impairment.
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Postconcussional Disorder
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In DSM-IV-TR, postconcussional disorder is included in the section of the appendix entitled "criteria sets and axes provided for further study." It requires (a) a history of head trauma that caused significant cerebral concussion as evidenced by a loss of consciousness, post-traumatic amnesia, and/or post-traumatic seizures; (b) disturbances in attention or memory; and (c) three or more symptoms that have lasted for at least three months (e.g., fatigue, headache, irritability or anger without provocation)
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Sexual Dimorphism
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Sexual dimorphism refers to sex-related differences in physical appearance; and the research has confirmed that the human brain is sexually dimorphic. Studies using structural brain imaging techniques, for instance, have found sex-related differences in the size of specific regions of the brain including the corpus callosum, hippocampus, and SCN
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Thalamus
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The thalamus is a "relay station" for all of the senses except olfaction. It is also involved in language and memory.
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Apraxia
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Apraxia is the inability to perform voluntary movements, especially those involving a sequence of movements. It is often the result of parietal lobe damage.
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Cerebral Stroke
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A cerebral stroke refers to brain damage that occurs when a blood clot or other obstruction or hemorrhage disrupts the flow of blood to the brain. Common symptoms include contralateral hemiplegia, hemianesthesia involving the face, arm, and led, and contralateral visual field loss.
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Learning and Memory(Neural Mechanisms)
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Specific neural mechanisms that are believed to mediate long-term memory include the following: (1) Long-term potentiation (a physiological process involving the modification of nerve synapses, especially at glutamate receptors in the hippocampus); and (2) protein synthesis (inhibition of the synthesis of protein or RNA at the time of learning prevents the formation of long-term memories).
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Neuroleptic Malignant Syndrome (NMS)
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NMS is a rare, but potentially fatal side effect of the antipsychotic drugs. It involves a rapid onset of motor, mental, and autonomic symptoms including muscle rigidity, tachycardia, hyperthermia, and altered consciousness. To avoid a potentially fatal outcome, the drug must be stopped as soon as symptoms of NMS develop.
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Reticular Activating System (RAS)
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The RAS is a network of nerve fibers involved in wakefulness, arousal, and consciousness.
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Spinal Cord
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The spinal cord carries information between the brain and the peripheral nervous system, coordinates activities of the left and right sides of the body, and controls simple reflexes that do not involve the brain. It consists of 31 segments, which are divided into five groups. From the top of the spinal cord to the bottom, these are: cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal. Damage at the cervical level ordinarily results in quadriplegia (loss of sensory and voluntary motor functioning in the arms and legs), while damage at the thoracic level causes paraplegia (loss of functioning in the legs).
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Traditional Antipsychotics
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The traditional antipsychotic drugs (e.g., phenothiazines) are used for the management of Schizophrenia and other psychoses. They are most effective for positive symptoms (delusions, hallucinations, agitation, thought disorders). Side effects include anticholinrergic and extrapyramidal effects.
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Ataxia
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Ataxia refers to a lack of coordination while performing voluntary movements. It often involves clumsiness and loss of balance. Ataxia is usually due to damage to the cerebellum (e.g., as the result of alcohol consumption).
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Cerebral Ventricles
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The ventricles are the four cavities of the brain that contain cerebrospinal fluid. Blockage of the ventricles and a resulting build-up of fluid can cause hydrocephalus.
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MAOIs
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The MAOIs are antidepressants that work by inhibiting the enzyme monoamine oxidase, which is involved in deactivating dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin. The most dangerous side effect is hypertensive crisis, which can occur when an MAOI is taken in conjunction with barbiturates, amphetamines, antihistamines, or certain other drugs, or with foods containing the amino acid tyramine (e.g., aged cheeses and meats, beer, read, wine, chicken, liver, avacados, bananas, fava beans).
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Neurotransmitters
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Neurotransmitters are chemical substances that are released from axon terminals, diffuse across synapses, and excite or inhibits receptor sites on postsynaptic nerves. 1. Acetylcholine mediates neuromuscular transmission, parasympathetic arousal, and memory (e.g., memory loss in Alzheimer's dementia). 2. Norepinephrine mediates the activities of the sympathetic nervous system and plays a role in the regulation of eating, sleep, and positive reinforcement. A deficiency is associated with some forms of depression. 3. Dopamine is involved in inhibitory motor regulation and motivational/emotional functions. Insufficient dopamine in the basil ganglia is believed to underlie Parkinson's disease; excessive activity at dopamine receptors has been linked to Schizophrenia and Tourette's syndrome. 4. Serotonin ordinarily inhibits behavior and is involved in the regulation of mood, hunger, arousal, sleep, temperature, and pain in the Affective Disorders, Schizophrenia, and OCD. 5. GABA is the most common inhibitory neurotransmitter and is believed to be involved in anxiety, sleep and seizures. Low levels of GABA in the motor region are associated with Huntington's disease.
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Secondary Sex Characteristics
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At puberty, an increase in gonadal hormones influences the emergence of secondary sex characteristics and the development of the reproductive system. Although the mechanisms that trigger the development of the secondary sex characteristics are not well understood, it occurs when the hypothalamus secretes chemicals that stimulate the anterior pituitary gland, which then releases the gonadotropic hormones that stimulate testosterone and sperm production by the testes or ovulation and estrogen production by the ovaries. This system is referred to as the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis.
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SSRIs (Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors)
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Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors : The SSRIs (e.g., fluoxetine) are antidepressant drugs that exert their effects by blocking the reuptake of serotonin at nerve synapases. Side effects include gastrointestinal disturbances, sexual dysfunction, insomnia, anxiety, headache, and anorexia.
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Tricyclics (TCAs)
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TCAs : The tricyclic antidepressants (e.g., imipramine, chlomipramine) are believed to work by blocking the reuptake of norepinephrine, dopamine, and/or serotonin. They are most effective for alleviating somatic, vegetative symptoms. Side effects include anticholinergic effects, confusion, drowsiness, weight gain, and cardiovascular symptoms.
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Anticholinergic Side Effects
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Anticholinergic side effects are caused by several drugs including the antipsychotics and tricyclic antidepressants. They include dry mouth, blurred vision, tachycardia (rapid heart rate), urinary retention, constipation, memory impairment, and confusion.
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Catecholamine Hypothesis
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According to the catecholamine Hypothesis, depression is caused by lower-than-normal levels of norepinephrine.
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Hypothalamus
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The hypothalamus consists of a cluster of nuclei, which control the autonomic nervous system and endocrine glands, mediates basic drives, and regulate emotional expression. The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), which is located in the hypothalamus, is involved in regulation of the body's circadian rhythms.
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Narcotic-Analgesics
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The drugs classified as narcotic-analgesics (opioids) have both sedative and analgesic properties. Medically, the narcotic-analgesics are used for the same reasons they were used centuries ago-i.e., as analgesics, treatments for diarrhea, and cough suppressants. Chronic use of a narcotic-analgesic results in tolerance and psychological and physical dependence.
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Prosopagnosia
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Prosopagnosia is the inability to recognize familiar faces including one's own face in the mirror.
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Sleep
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Sleep is divided into five stages on the basis of EEG(electroencephalogram) pattern. During stage 1, the sleeper's EEG record is similar to that of an awake relaxed individual and is dominated by alpha waves. The stage 2 EEG record consists primarily of theta waves that are interrupted by bursts of sleep spindles and K complexes. Large, slow delta waves appear during stage 3; and in stage 4, the "deep sleep" stage, delta waves dominate the EEG record. The fifth sleep stage is characterized by the presence of rapid eye movements and, consequently, is known as REM (dream) sleep. Sleep patterns vary with age. For example, total sleep time, stage 4 sleep, and REM sleep all decrease from childhood to adulthood.
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Theories of Color Vision
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There are two theories of color vision. According to the trichromatic theory, there are three types of color receptors that are each receptive to a different primary color (red, blue, or green). All other colors are produced by variations in the activity of these three receptors. The opponent-process theory also postulates three distinct receptors; red-green, yellow-blue, and white-black. According to this theory, some cells are excited by red and inhibited by green and so on' and the overall pattern of stimulation of these cells produces the various colors that we preceive.
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Aphasia
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Aphasia refers to impairments in the production and/or comprehension of language. Broca's aphasia is produced by damage to Broca's area. It involves difficulty in producing written or spoken language with little or no trouble in understanding language. Wernicke's aphasia is caused by damage to Wernicke's area. It is characterized by an inability to comprehend written or spoken language along with the production of rapid, seemingly effortless speech that is lacking content and may include anomia and paraphasia. Conduction aphasia is producted by damage to the arcuate fasciculus, it does not significantly affect language comprehension but does result in anomia and an inability to repeat words or simple phrases.
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Cerebellum
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The cerebellum is a large structure on the dorsal aspect of the hindbrain. It is involved in the extrapyramidal control of the motor activities (e.g., coodination, balance, posture); damage can result in ataxia.
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Learning and Memory (Areas of the Brain)
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Areas of the brain involved in learning and memory include the following: 1. The temporal lobes are essential for the encoding, storage, and retrieval of long-term declarative memories. 2. The hippocampus is responsible for the consolidation of long-term declarative memories (transferring information from short-term to long-term memory). 3. The amygdala plays a key role in fear conditioning, learning about rewards and punishments, and adding emotional significance to memories. 4. The prefrontal cortex has been implicated in short-term memory, episodic memory, and prospective memory. 5. The thalamus is involved in processing information and transferring it to the neocortex.
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Neuroimaging Techniques
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Neuroimaging techniques make it possible to study both the structure and function of the living brain. Computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are structural techniques. Positron-emission tomography (PET), single proton emission computed tomography (SPECT), and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) provide information on the functional activities of the brain.
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Psychophysical Laws
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The psychophysical laws attempt to predict the relationship between perception and sensation. Fechner's law states that physical stimulus changes are logarithmically related to their psychological sensations. Steven's power law proposes that the magnitude of a sensation is equal to the physical magnitude of the stimulus producing the sensation raised to a certain power (exponent) which varies, depending on the specific sensation being measured. Weber's law states that the just noticeable difference in stimulus intensity is a constant proportion of the initial stimulus intensity.
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Somatic Nervous System
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The somatic nervous system (SNS) consists of sensory nerves that carry information from the body's sense receptors to the CNS and motor nerves that carry information from the CNS to the skeletal muscles. The SNS governs activities that are ordinarily considered voluntary.
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Theories of Emotion
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The various theories of emotion differ in terms of their emphasis on the role of peripheral and central factors. The James-Lange theory stresses the importance of peripheral factors and proposes that emotions represent perceptions of bodily reactions (especially ANS reactions) to sensory stimuli. Cannon-Bard theory places greater emphasis on the brain mechanisms that mediate emotion. It proposes that emotional and bodily reactions to stiluli occur simultaneously as a result of thalamic stimulation of the cortex and the peripheral nervous system.
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Atypical Antipsychotics
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The atypical (newer) antipsychotic drugs (e.g., clozapine) affect receptors for several neurotransmitters including dopamine, serotonin, and glutamate. These drugs are effective for both positive and negative symptoms of Schizophrenia and are less likely to produce tardive dyskinesia than the traditional antipsychotics.
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Closed-Head Injury
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A closed-head injury involves cerebral trauma caused by blow to the head. It is often followed by a period of loss of consciousness (coma) followed by posttraumatic (anterogrande) amnesia. It may also involve retrograde amnesia and other symptoms, depending on the nature and severity of the injury.
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Methylphenidate (Ritalin)
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Methylphenidate is a psychostimulant drug used to treat ADHD. Its side effects include dysphoria, decreased appetite, insomnia, and growth suppression.
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Occipital Lobe
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The occipital lobe contains the primary sensory cortex for vision. Damage to the occipital lobe can result in visual object agnosia, color agnosia, word blindness, and/or scotomas (blind spots).
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Sedative-Hypnotics
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The sedative-hypnotics include the barbiturates, anxiolytics, and alcohol. These drugs are generalized CNS depressants, and their effects, for the most part, are dose dependent. At low doses, these drugs reduce arousal and motor activity; at moderate doses, they induce sedation and sleep; and at high doses they can produce anesthesia, coma, and death. The benzodiazepines are a type of anxiolytic. Their side effects include drowsiness, ataxia, slurred speech and other signs of CNS depression; abrupt cessation can cause rebound hyperexcitability.
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Synesthesia
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synesthesia ("joining senses") is a rare condition in which the stimulation of one sensory modality triggers a sensation in another senory modality. For example, a person with synesthesia might hear a color or taste a shape.
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Type A Behavior Pattern
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People exhibiting the Type A behavior pattern are highly competitive and achievement-oriented, have a sense of time urgency, and tend to be hostile, easily irritated, and impatient. A number of studies have confirmed that, of the Type A characteristics, cynical or antagonistic hostility is most strongly associated with health problems, especially coronary heart disease in males.
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Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
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The ANS is a division of the peripheral nervous system and is involved in the control of visceral functions (e.g., heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, digestion, and sweating). It consists of the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches: The sympathetic branch is involved in the mediation of flight or fight (emergency) reactions. Activation of the sympathetic branch produces increased heart rate, pupil dilation, increased blood sugar, and inhibition of the digestive processes. The parasympathetic branch is involved in the conservation of energy and relaxation; activatio is associated with slowing of heart rate, lowered blood pressure, contractio of pupils, reduction of sweat gland output, and increased activity of the digestive system.
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Contralateral Representation
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For most sensory and motor functions, the cortex exhibits contralateral representation, which means that the left hemisphere controls the functions of the right side of the body and vice-versa. The right and left hemispheres are connected by several bundles of fibers, the largest of which is the corpus callosum. If the corpus callosum is severed, the two hemispheres operate essentially as separate, independent brains.
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Migraine Headache
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A migraine headache is a recurrent vascular headache characterized by severe throbbing pain, usually on one side of the head. Triggers include certain foods, alcohol, bright lights, and relaxation following physical or psychological stress. A migraine may be preceded by an aura (classic migraine) or gastrointestinal or other symptoms (common migraine).
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Parietal Lobe
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The parietal lobe contains the somatosensory cortex. Damage can cause apraxia, inability to recognize objects by touch, problems, related to left-right orientation, contralateral neglect, and/or Gerstmann Syndrome.
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Seizures
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There are two main types of seizures. 1. Generalized seizures are bilaterally symmetrical and do not have a focal onset. Included is this category are tonic-clonic and absence seizures. Tonic-clonic (grand mal) seizures include a tonic stage in which the muscles contract and the body stiffens; a clonic stage that involves rhythmic shaking of the limbs; and postictal (postseizure) depression or confusion with amnesia for the ictal event. Absence (petit mal) seizures are brief attacks involving a loss of consciousness without prominent motor symptoms. 2. Partial seizures begin in one side of the brain and affect one side of the body, at least initially. (They sometimes spread and become generalized seizures)
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Tardive Dyskinesia
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Tardive dyskinesia is a potentially irreversible extrapyramidal side effect associated with long-term use of traditional antipsychotic drugs. Symptoms include rhythmical, stereotyped movements of the muscles of the face, limbs, and trunk (similar to Huntington's chorea). In some cases, symptoms are alleviated by a GABA agonist or by cessation of the drug.
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Visual Agnosia
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Visual agnosia ("visual not knowing") is an inability to recognize familiar objects by sight.
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