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52 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Social-Cognitive Factors and Aggression
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A number of researchers have identified several social-cognitive factors that contribute to aggression. Perry, Perry and Rasmussen (1986) found that aggressive children differ from their less aggressive peers in terms of two beliefs a) self-efficacy beliefs (they are more likely to say that it is easy to perform aggressive acts but difficult to inhibit aggressive impulses), and b) beliefs about the outcomes of their behaviors (they expect that aggression will be followed by positive consequences including reduced aversive treatment by others). Other studies have linked aggression to a tendency to misinterpret the positive or ambiguous acts of others as intentionally hostile.
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Rejected versus Neglected Children
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In recent literature, a distinction is made between rejected and neglected children; and the studies have found that, overall, outcomes are worse for children who are actively rejected by their peers: Rejected children express greater lonliness and peer dissatisfaction and are less likely to experience an improvement in peer status when they change social groups.
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Montessori Method
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The Montessori method is an approach to education that emphasizes child-centered, experiential learning and sense discrimination (i.e., learning through seeing, hearing, smelling, and touching).
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Genotype versus Phenotype
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Genotype refers to a person's genetic make-up; phenotype refers to observable characteristics, which are due to a combination of genetic and environmental factors.
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Effects of Divorce on Children (Sleeper Effect, Conflict Between Parents)
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The effects of divorce are moderated by several factors including the child's age and gender and custody arrangements. Preschool children exhibit the most problems immediately after the divorce, but long-term consequences may be worse for children who were in elementary school at the time of the divorce. Boys exhibit more problems than girls initially, but there may be a "sleeper effect" for girls who may develop symptoms in adolescence. Overall, children do best when they reside with the same-sex parent. Negative consequences are reduced when the conflict between parents is minimized.
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Brain Development (Cerebral Cortex)
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The cerebral cortex is largely underdeveloped at birth but shows dramatic growth during the first two years of life as the result of an increase in the size of existing neurons, more extensive dendritic branching, and increasing myelinization. The frontal lobes continue to mature into adolescence and the early 20's
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Aging and Visual Changes
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After the age 65, most individuals experience visual changes that interfere with reading, driving, and other aspects of daily life. In addition to presbyopia (loss of near vision), common changes include loss of visual acuity, reduced perception of depth and color, increased light sensitivity, and deficits in visual search, dynamic vision (perceiving the details of moving objects), and speed in processing what is seen
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Stages of Language Acquisition
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Language development occurs in a predictable sequence of stages. Infants initially produce three distinct patterns of crying: a basic (hunger) cry, an anger cry, and a pain cry. Cooing and babbling (6-8 weeks and 4 months, respectively); echolalia and expressive jargon (9 months); holophrastic speech (1 to 2 years); telegraphic speech (18 to 24 months); and grammatically correct sentences (beginning at about 2-1/2 years)
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Relational Crisis (Gilligan)
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Gilligan proposes that, in early adolescence, girls experience a relational crisis due to pressures to conform to cultural stereotypes of femininity. As a result, they become disconnected from themselves (e.g., experience a "loss of voice")
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Nativist Approach to Language Acquisition (Chomsky)
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The nativist approach to language acquisition stresses the role of biological mechanisms (e.g., Chomsky's language acquisition device) and universal patterns of development.
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Goodness-of-fit Model (Thomas and Chess)
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According to Thomas and Chess, behavioral and adjustment outcomes are best for children when parents' caregiving behaviors match the child's temperament.
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Effects of increasing age on memory
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Several aspects of memory show age-related declines, especially recent long-term (secondary) memory. Deficits in secondary memory are believed to be due primarily to a reduced spontaneous use of encoding strategies.
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Bronfenbrenner's ecological model
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Bronfenbrenner distinguished between four levels of environmental influence on development-microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem.
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Assimilation and Accommodation (Piaget)
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According to Piaget, cognitive development occurs when a state of disequilibrium brought on by a discrepancy between the person's current understanding of the world and reality is resolved through adaptation, which entails two complementary processes; Assimilation is the incorporation of new knowledge into existing cognitive schemas (structures), whild accommodation is the modification of existing schemas to incorporate new knowledge.
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Rutter's Indicators
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Rutter argues that the greater the number of risk factors a baby is exposed to, the greater the risk for negative outcomes. In one study, he found that psychiatric rish for children increased from 2% for those with one or no risk to 21% for thos with four or more risks. He concludes that the following six family risk factors are particularly accurate predictors of child psychopathology: severe marital discord, low socioeconomic status, overcrowding or large family size, parental ciminality, maternal psychopatholgy, and placement of a child outside the home.
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Phenylketonuria (PKU) and down syndrome
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PKU is a disorder caused by a pair of recessive genes that causes mental retardation unless the infant is placed on a special diet very soon after birth. Down Syndrome is caused by an extra number 21 chromosome. It is characterized by mental retardation, retarded physical growth and motor development, distinctive physical characteristics, and increased susceptibility to Alzheimer's dementia, leukemia, and heart defects.
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Imprinting
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Ethological research found that the critical period for imprinting in geese is during the first two or three days after birth. Bowlby applied the notion of critical period to human attachment and proposed that exposure of an infant to his or her mother during this period results in a bond between them.
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Fetal Alcohol Syndrome/Effects
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Prenatal exposure to alcohol can produce a variety of physical, behavioral, and cognitive symptoms that, in terms of severity, depend on the amount of alcohol consumed by the pregnant woman. Fetal alcohol symdrome (FAS) is characterized by facial deformities, mental retardation, growth retardation, physical defects, and behavioral problems. The symptoms of fetal alcohol effects (FAE) are less severe and usually do not include facial deformities and mental retardation. The symptoms of both disorders are largely irreversible.
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Compensatory Preschool Programs
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Research evaluating the effects of Head Start and other compensatory preschool programs has found that, while initial IQ test score gains produced by these programs are often not maintained, children who attend these programs tend to obtain higher scores on achievement tests, have better attitudes toward school, and are less likely to be retained in a grade, be placed in special education classes, and drop out of high school than their peers who do not attend such programs.
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Auditory Localization
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Some auditory localization (the ability to orient toward the direction of a sound) is evident shortly after birth, seems to disappear between two and four months, and then reappears and improves during the rest of the first year.
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Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Effect
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Research on teacher expectations suggests that they have a "self-fulfilling prophecy effect" on the academic performance, motivation, and self-esteem of students.
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Phonemes versus Morphemes
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Phonemes are the smallest units of sound that are understood in a language. The English language has 45 phonemes-for example, b, p, f, v, and th. Morphemes (e.g., "un" and "ing") are the smallest units of sound that convey meaning. Morphemes are made up of one or more phonemes.
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Kohlberg's Levels of Moral Development
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According to Kohlber's cognitive-developmemntal theory, moral development coincides with changes in logical reasoning and social perspective-taking and involves three levels that each include two stages: preconventional (punishment and obedience; instrumental hedonism); conventional (good boy/girl; law and order); and postconventional (morality of contract, individual rights, and democratically-accepted laws; morality of individual principles of conscious)
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Freud's stages of psychosexual development
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Freud's theory of personality development proposes that development involves five invariant stages (oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital), in which the libido shifts from one area of the body to another.
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Contact Comfort (Harlow)
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Research by Harlow with rhesus monkeys indicated that a baby's attachment to his/her mother is due, in part, to contact comfort, or the pleasant tactile sensation that is provided by a soft cuddly parent.
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Behavioral Inhibition
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Kagan (1989) found evidence of both a biological contribution and stability for the temperament trait known as behavioral inhibition. His study demonstrated that children identified as either inhibited or uninhibited at 21 months of age can be similarly categorized at 5-1/2 and 7-1/2 years and that level of inhibition is related to physiological responsivity.
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Teacher Feedback
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The research indicates that teachers tend to respond differently to boys and girls. Boys generally receive more correction, criticism, praise and help than girls do. Moreover, the nature of the feedback is gender-related; e.g., boys are more often criticized for sloppiness and inattention, girls for inadequate intellectual performance.
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Remarriage
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Although there is evidence that, when compared to children in intact biological families, children in stepfamilies have more adjustment problems, the differences between the two groups of children are generally small. Problems are often most severe when remarriage occurs when children are in early adolescence, and this is particularly true for girls residing with a biological mother and stepfather. Finally, in terms of parenting style, the typical stepfather tends to be distant and disengaged from his stepchild.
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Parenting Style (Baumrind)
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Baumrind distinguishes between four styles that reflect various combinations of responsivity and demandingness: authoritarian, authoritative, permissive, and rejecting-neglecting. High parental responsivity mixed with moderate control (an authoritative style) is associated with the best outcomes including greater self-confidence and self-reliance, achievement-orientation, and social responsibility.
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Heteronomous versus Autonomous Morality (Piaget)
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Piaget distinguished between two stages of moral development. The stage of heteronomous morality (or morality of constraint) extends from about age seven through age ten. During this stage, children believe that rules are set by authority figures and are unalterable. When judging whether an act is "right" or "wrong", they consider whether a rule has been violated and what the consequences of the act are. Beginning at about age 11, children enter the stage of autonomous morality (or morality of cooperation). Chidren in this stage view rules as being arbitrary and alterable when the people who are governed by them agree to change them. When judging an act, they focus more on the intention of the actor than on the act's consequences.
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Effects of Maternal Employment
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Research investigating the effects of maternal employment has found it to be associated with greater personal satisfaction for the working mother (especially when she wants to work) and, in terms of the children, with fewer sex-role stereotypes and greater independence. For lower-SES boys, maternal employment is associated with better performance on measures of cognitive development; but for upper-SES boys, it may result in lower scores on IQ and achievement tests.
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Child Sexual Abuse
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In terms of the outcomes of child sexual abuse for male and female victims, some studies have found no consistent gender differences; but, when differences are found, the outcomes are worse for females than for males. The research has also found that the effects of sexual abuse tend to be less severe when the abuse was committed by a stranger rather than by a family member or other familiar person.
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Adolescent Egocentrism (Elkind)
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Adolescent egocentrism appears at the beginning of the formal operational stage. As defined by Elkind, its characteristics include the personal fable and imaginary audience.
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Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory
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Vygotsky's socialcultural theory proposes that cognitive development is always first interpersonal (when the child interacts with an adult or other teacher) and then intrapersonal (when the child internalizes what he/she has learned). The zone of proximal development is a basic concept in Vygotsky's theory-cognitive development is fostered when instruction targets the zone of proximal development which is defined by what a child can currently do alone and what he/she can accomplish with assistance from a parent, teacher, or more experienced peer.
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Resilience (Werner and Smith)
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Longitudinal research by Werner and Smith suggests that exposure to early (prenatal and perinatal) stress may be ameliorated when the baby experiences fewer stressors following birth, exhibits good communication skills and social responsiveness, and receives stable support from a parent or other caregiver.
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Patterns of Attachment (Ainsworth)
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Research using Ainsworth's "strange situation" has revealed four patterns of attachment: secure, insecure/ambivalent, insecure/avoidant, and disorganized/disoriented. Each is associated with different caregiver behaviors and different personality and behavioral outcomes.
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Identity Statuses (Marcia)
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Marcia proposes that the achievement of an identity (including values, beliefs, and goals) involves four stages that take place primarily during adolescence and young adulthood-i.e., diffusion, foreclosure, moratorium, and achievement.
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Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development
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Erikson's theory of personality development proposes that the individual faces different social crises at different points throughout the life span. These are: trust vs. mistrust; autonomy vs. shame and doubt; initiative vs. guilt; industry vs. inferiority; identity vs. role confusion; intimacy vs. isolation; generativity vs. stagnation; and integrity vs. despair.
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Coercive Family Interaction Model (Patterson)
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Patterson et al.' coercive family interaction model proposes that children initially learn aggressive behaviors from their parents who rarely reinforce prosocial behaviors, use harsh discipline, and reward their children's aggressiveness with approval and attention and that, over time, aggressive parent-child interactions escalate. They developed a parent intervention that is designed to stop this coercive cycle by teaching parents child management skills and providing them with therapy to help them cope more effectively with stress.
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Adult Attachment Interview
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Research using the Adult Attachment Intervierw (AAI) has confirmed a relationship between parents' own attachment experiences and the attachment patterns of their children. For example, children of adults classified as dismissing on the AAI often exhibit an avoidant attachment pattern in the Strange Situation.
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Semantic and Syntactic Bootstrapping
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Semantic and syntactic bootstrapping are mechanisms that facilitate early language development. Semantic bootstrapping refers to using knowledge of the meaning of a word to infer its syntactical category; while syntactical bootstrapping refers to using syntactical knowledge to deduce the meaning of an unfamiliar word.
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Physical Maturation in Adolescence
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Research comparing the effects of early versus late physical maturation on adolescents has found that early maturation has a number of benefits for boys but may have negative consequences for girls.
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Maternal Depression
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Children of depressed mothers are at higher risk for emotional and behavioral problems, although the exact nature and severity of the problems depend on several factors including genetic predisposition and the quality of early mother-child interactions.
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Gay and Lesbian Parents
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The research on gay and lesbian parents suggests that the nature of the parent-child relationship is more important than a parent's sexual orientation: Overall, children of gay and lesbian parents are similar to children of heterosexual parents in terms of social relations, psychological adjustment, gender identity development, and sexual orientation.
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Critical versus Sensitive Period
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A critical period is a time during which an organism is especially susceptible to positive and negative environmental influences. A sensitive period is more flexible than a critical period and is not limited to a specific chronological age. Some aspects of human developmemt may depend on critical periods, but, for many human characteristics and behaviors, sensitive periods are probably more applicable.
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Bilingualism and Bilingual Education
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Bilingualism has been linked with several benefits including greater cognitive flexibility and nonverbal skills. When language-minority children participate in high-quality bilingual programs, they do as well as or better than peers who participate in all-English programs in terms of academic English and knowledge of subject matter.
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Signs of Attachment
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Obvious signs of attachment to a primary caregiver are usually not apparent until about six months of age. These include social referencing, separation anxiety, and stranger anxiety.
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Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development
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Piaget's theory of cognitive development proposes that knowledge is actively constructed by the individual from elements provided by both maturation and experience. According to Piaget, cognitive development involves four universal and invariant stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. Object permanence, an accomplishment of the sensorimotor stage, involves the ability to recognize that people, objects, etc. still exist even when they are not detectable. Magical thinking, or the belief that thinking about something will actually casue it to occur, is characteristic of the preoperational stage along with centration, which is the tendency to focus on the most noticeable features of objects. The ability to conserve (conservation) develops during the concrete operational stage and is due to the emergence of decentration and reversibility.
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Memory strategies of Children
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Preschoolers sometimes use non-deliberate memory strategies ("incidental mnemonics") but do so in an ineffective way, and children in the early elementary school years use somewhat more effective techniques but are often distracted by irrelevant information. In addition, when taught rehearsal or other memory strategies, young children may apply them to the immediate situation but do not subsequently use them in new situations. By age nine or ten, however, children begin to regularly use rehearsal, elaboration, and organization, and, in adolescence, these strategies are "fine-tuned" and used more deliberately and selectively.
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Gender Role Development
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According to Kohlberg's (1966) cognitive-developmental theory, gender-role development involves a sequence of stages that parallels cognitive development: By age two or three, children acquire a gender identity; that is, they recognize that they are either male or female. Soon thereafter, children realize that gender identity is stable over time (gender stability): Boys grow up to be men and girls grow up to be women. By age six or seven, children understand that gender is constant over situations and know that people cannot change gender by superficially altering their external appearance or behavior (gender constancy).
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Early Reflexes
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Reflexes are unlearned responses to particular stimuli in the environment. Early reflexes include the Babinski reflex (toes fan out and upward when soles of the feet are tickled) and the Moro reflex (flings arms and legs outward and then toward the body in response to a loud noise or sudden loss of physical support).
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Birth Defects (Alcohol, Cocaine, Malnutrition, Anoxia)
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Causes of birth defects include genetic factors, exposure to teratogens, poor maternal health, and complications during the birth process. Alcohol consumption by a woman during pregnancy can produce fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) in her infant. Cocaine use by a pregnant woman increases the risk for spontaneous abortion and stillbirth. Malnutrition during prenatal development is associated with miscarriage, stillbirth, and low birth weight, mental retardation,and other serious problems. Severe malnutrition in the third trimester (especially protein deficiency) is particularly detrimental for the developing brain. During the birth process, prolonged anoxia (oxygen shortage) can be caused by several factors including a twisted umbilical cord or the sedatives given to the mother. Potential consequences of anoxia include delayed motor and cognitive development, mental retardation, and, in severe cases, cerebral palsy.
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