Eppp-Learning Theory And Cbt

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Anterograde and Retrograde Amnesia

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Anterograde amnesia is a loss of memory for events and information subsequent to the trauma or other event that precipitated the amnesia. It involves an inability to form new memories. Retrograde amnesia is a loss of memory for events that occurred or information that was acquired prior to the trauma or other event that caused the amnesia.

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Contingency Contract

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A contingency contract is a type of contingency management that involves a formal written agreement between two or more people (e.g., between therapist and client, parent and child, teacher and students) that clearly defines the behaviors that are to be modified and the rewards and punishments that will follow performance of those behaviors. Behavioral change may be required by one or all parties to the contract.

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Insight (Kohler)

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Insight learning (the "aha" experience refers to the apparent sudden understanding of the relationship between elements in a problem-solving situation.

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Mnemonics (Method of Loci, Keyword Method)

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Mnemonics are memory strategies that rely on imagery, organization, and other techniques. The method of loci is a mnemonic that employs imagery in which items to be remembered are mentally placed, one by one, in pre-memorized (familiar) locations; recall involves mentally "walking through" the location and retrieving the items. The keyword method, another imagery technique, is useful for the paired associate tasks in which two words must be linked.

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Prospective Memory

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Prospective memory is an aspect of long-term memory that is responsible for the ability to "remember to remember" (e.g., to remember a future appointment)

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Self-Instructional Training

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Self-instructional training is a cognitive-behavioral technique in which the individual learns to modify maladaptive thoughts and behaviors through the use of covert self-statements. It was originally developed as a way to help impulsive and hyperactive children slow down their behaviors and guide themselves through academic and other types of tasks.

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Systematic Desensitization (Dismantling Strategy)

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Systematic desensitization is a classical conditioning procedure based on counterconditioning (reciprocal inhibition). It involves pairing hierarchically-arranged anxiety-evoking stimuli with relaxation in order to eliminate the anxiety response. Research using the dismantling strategy suggests that extinction (rather than counterconditiong) is responsible for it effectiveness.

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Aversive Counterconditioning

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Aversive counterconditioning (aversion therapy) is based on counterconditioning and reduces the attractiveness of a stimulus or behavior by repeatedly pairing it with a stimulus that produces an undesirable or unpleasant response. Pairing alcohol consumption with electric shock to reduce alcohol use is an example of aversive counterconditioning. In this situation, the alcohol is the CS and the electric shock is the US.

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Differential Reinforcement

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Differential reinforcement (e.g., DRA, DRO, and DRI) is an operant technique that combines positive reinforcement and extinction. During a specified period of time, the individual is reinforced when he/she engages in behaviors other than the target behavior. The alternative behaviors are reinforced, while the target behavior is extinguished.

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Interference Theory (Retroactive and Proactive)

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Interference theory proposes that the inability to learn or recall information is due to the disrupting effects of previously-or subsequently-learned information. Proactive interference is the inability to learn or recall new information as the result of the effects of previously-learned information; retroactive interference occurs when the inability to remember previously-learned information is due to the acquisition of new information.

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Observational Learning (Guided Participation)

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Bandura's observational learning theory predicts that behaviors can be acquired simply by observing someone else (a model) perform those behaviors; i.e., the acquisition of behavior is due largely to social influences and that learning is cognitively mediated and involves four processes: attention, retention, production, and motivation. The research suggests that guided participation (participant modeling) is the most effective type of observation learning, especially for treating phobic reactions.

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Punishment

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In operant conditioning, punishment refers to a method used to decrease a behavior by applying or withdrawing a stimulus following the behavior. A major disadvantage of punishment is that is suppresses (rather then eliminates) a behavior.

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Serial Position Effect

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Research on the serial position effect has found that, when people are asked to recall a list of unrelated items immediately after reading the list, the items in the beginning and end of the list are recalled much better than those in the middle. Apparently, this is because items in the beginning of the list have already been rehearsed and stored in long-term memory, while items at the end are still in short-term memory.

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Time-Out

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Time-out is a form of negative punishment in which the individual is removed from all opportunities for reinforcement for a prespecified period of time allowing a misbehavior in order to decrease the occurrence of that behavior.

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Classical Conditioning (CS/CR, US/UR)

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In classical conditioning, a neutral (conditioned) stimulus is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus alone eventually elicits the response that is naturally produced by the unconditioned stimulus. In Pavlov's original studies, the meat powder was the unconditioned stimulus and salivation was the unconditioned response. A tone was the conditioned stimulus. As the result of pairing the tone with the meat powder, the tone eventually elicited salivation-the conditioned response.

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Fading

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Fading refers to (a) the gradual withdrawal of prompts when teaching a new response; and (b) a procedure used to eliminate an inappropriate stimulus-response connection by gradually replacing the inappropriate stimulus with appropriate stimuli so that the response become associated with the latter.

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Law of Effect (Thorndike)

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Thorndike's law of effect proposes that, when behaviors are followed by "satisfying consequences," they are more likely to increase or occur again.

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Positive and Negative Punishment

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In operant conditioning, positive punishment is used to decrease a behavior and involve applying a stimulus following the behavior. Negative punishment is also used to decrease a behavior and involves withdrawing a stimulus following a behavior.

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Response Cost

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Response cost is a form of negative punishment that involves removing a reinforcer (e.g., a specific number of tokens or points) following a behavior in order to reduce that behavior.

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Stimulus Control

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In operant conditioning, stimulus control is the process by which a behavior does or does not occur due to the presence (or absence) of discriminative stimuli. Positive discriminative stimuli signal that a behavior will be reinforced; negative discriminative stimuli (S-delta stimuli) signal that a behavior will not be reinforced.

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Yerkes-Dodson Law

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The theory indicates that moderate levels of arousal are associated with optimal learning and performance so the the relationship between arousal and learning take the shape of an inverted-U.

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Classical Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery

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Classical extinction is the gradual elimination of a classically conditioned response by repeatedly presenting the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus. Often, an extinguished response shows spontaneous recovery-i.e., it recurs following extinction.

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Forward Conditioning (Delay Conditioning)

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In classical conditioning, forward conditioning refers to the presentation of the CS prior to (or simultaneiously with) the US. Of the methods of forward conditioning, delay conditioning is most effective in producing a conditioned response. In delay conditioning, the CS precedes and overlaps the US.

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Learned Helplessness

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Learned helplessness is a theory of depression that proposes that some forms of depression are due to a tendency to attribute negative events to internal, stable, and global factors. According to a more recent version of the theory, attributions mediate depression to the extent that they contribute to a sense of hopelessness.

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Positive and Negative Reinforcement

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In operant conditioning, positive reinforcement is used to increase a behavior and involves applying a stimulus following the behavior. Negative reinforcement is also used to increase a behavior but involves withdrawing a stimulus after the behavior.

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Satiation versus Habituation

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Satiation is the condition of being satisfied or gratified with regard to a particular reinforces. Satiation is a problem with continuous reinforcement and with the use of primary (unconditioned) reinforcers. Satiation must be distinguished from habituation, which is the process of becoming accustomed (physiologically nonreactive) to a stimulus as the result of prolonged exposure to that stimulus. Habituation may occur when using punishment if the punishment is initially delivered at low intensity and thereafter gradually increased in intensity.

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Stimulus Discrimination and Experimental Neurosis

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In classical conditioning, stimulus discrimination training is used to teach an organism to respond with a CR only in the presence of certain stimuli (i.e., in the presence of the original CS). Sometimes, when discriminations are difficult, the organism will exhibit experiemental neurosis-i.e., it will exhibit unusual behaviors such as restlessness, agressiveness, or fear.

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Biofeedback

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Biofeedback provides the individual with immediate and continuous feeback about an ongoing physiological process (e.g., muscle tension, blood pressure) with the goal of enabling the individual to exercise voluntary control over that process. It seems to be particularly useful for treating Raynaud's disease and certain forms of urinary and fecal incontinence. For other disorders (e.g., hypertension, tension headaches), it is about equally effective as relaxation.

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EDMR (Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing)

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EDMR was originally developed as an intervention of PTSD. It combines rapid lateral eye movements with exposure and other techniques drawn from cognitive, behavioral, psychodynamic approaches. Some research suggests that its effectiveness does not depend on rapid eye movements but, instead, on exposure to the feared event.

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In Vivo Exposure with Response to Prevention (Flooding)

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In vivo exposure with response prevention is a classical extinction technique that involves exposing the individual to high anxiety-arousing stimuli (the CS) without the original US.

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Operant Extinction and Extinction Bursts

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In operant conditioning, extinction refers to the elimination of a previously-reinforced response through the consistent withholding of reinforcement following that response. Operant extinction is usually associated with a temporary increase in the response (and "extinction burst")

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Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT)

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From the perspective of rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT), behavior is a chain of events-A, B, and C-where A is the external event to which the individual is exposed; B is the belief the individual has about A; and C is the emotion or behavior that results from B. In other words, an emotional or behavioral response to an external event is due to beliefs about that event rather than to the event itself. According to Ellis (1985), the founder of REBT, the primary cause of neurosis is the continual repetition of certain common irrational beliefs and these beliefs are the appropriate target of therapy.

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Shaping

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Shaping, or the method of "successive approximations," involves teaching a new behavior through prompting and reinforcing behaviors that come closer and closer to the target behavior.

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Thinning versus Fading

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Thinning refers to the process of reducing the proportion of reinforcements. Fading refers to the gradual removal of prompts.

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Chaining

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Chaining combines classical and operant conditioning and is believed to underlie the acquisition of complex behaviors that consist of individual responses ("behavior chains"). It involves establishing a sequence of responses with each response or stimulus associated with it acting as both a secondary reinforcer for the previous response and a discriminative stimulus for the following response.

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Escape and Avoidance Conditioning

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Escape conditioning is an application of negative reinforcement in which the target behavior is an escape behavior. Avoidance conditioning combines classical conditioning with negative reinforcement. Through avoidance conditioning, an organism learns to make a particular response in the presence of a positive discriminative stimulus so that it can avoid and unpleasant stimulus

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Latent Learning (Tolman)

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Tolman's model of latent learning proposes that learning can occur without reinforcement and without being manifested in actual performance improvement. Tolman's research showed that rats formed "cognitive maps" of mazes even without being reinforced for doing so.

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Overcorrection

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Overcorrection is an operant technique used to eliminate an undesirable behavior. It involves having the individual correct the consequences of his/her behavior (restitution) and/or practice corrective behaviors (positive practice). Overcorrection may require constant supervision and/or physical guidance.

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Reciprocal Inhibition

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Reciprocal inhibition is a form of counterconditioning developed by Wolpe to alleviate anxiety reactions by pairing a stimulus that produces anxiety (CS) with a stimulus that produces relaxtion or other incompatible response (US).

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State Dependent Learning

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Research on state-dependent learning has shown that recall of information tends to be better when the learner is in the same emotional state during learning and recall.

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Trace Decay Theory

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Trace decay theory proposes that a loss of memory (forgetting) is due to the gradual decay of memory traces or engrams over time as the result of disuse.

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Cognitive Therapy (Schema, Collaborative Empiricism, Socratic Dialogue, Automatic Thoughts)

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Beck's cognitive therapy (CT) is a form of cognitive-behavioral therapy that views depression and other psychopathology as the product of certain cognitive phenomena including dysfunctional cognitive schemas, automatic thoughts, and cognitive distortions. CT is referred to as "collaborative empiricism" because of its emphasis on the collaborative relationship between therapist and client. Cognitive therapists often use Socratic dialogue (questioning) in order to help the client reach logical conclusions about a problem and its consequences.

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Higher-Order Conditioning

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In classical conditioning, the situation in which a previously-established CS is used essentially as a US to establish a conditioned response for a new conditioned (neutral) stimulus.

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Levels of Processing

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The levels of processing model proposes that differences in memory are not due to different stores or stages but to different levels of processing. The semantic level is the deepest level of processing and leads to the best retention.

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Premack Principle

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The Premack Principle is an application of positive reinforcement that involves using a high-frequency behavior as a positive reinforcer for a low-frequency behavior.

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Schedules of Reinforcement (Continuous and Intermittent)

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In operant conditioning, continuous reinforcement involves providing reinforcement following each emission of the target response. It is associated with rapid acquisition of a response and a high susceptibility to extinction. Intermittent schedules are schedules that are not continuous. Skinner distinguished between four types of intermittent schedules-fixed interval, fixed ratio, variable interval, and variable ratio. The fixed interval (FI) schedule involves reinforcing the organism for each pretermined interval of the time in which it makes at least one response; the variable (VI) schedule involves providing reinforcement after a varying amount of time, with the average time interval being predetermined. A fixed ratio (FR) schedule involves providing reinforcement after a predetermined number of responses (e.g., after each 10th response); a variable ratio (VR) schedule entails applying the reinforcer after a varying number of responses, with the average number being predetermined. The VR schedule is associated with a high, stable rate of responding and the greatest resistance to extinction.

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Stimulus Generalization

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In operant and classical conditioning, stimulus generalization refers to responding with a particular response to similar stimuli. In classical conditioning, it refers to responding to stimilu similar to the CS with the CR; in operant conditioning , the term is used to describe responding to stimuli similar to the discriminative stimuli with the target behavior.

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Concurrent Schedules of Reinforcement

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When using concurrent schedules of reinforcement, there are two or more simultaneious and independent schedules of reinforcement, each for a different response. In this situation, the organism matches its relative frequency of responding to the relative frequency of reinforcement for each response.

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Information Processing Model

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The information processing (multi-store) model of memory describes the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information as involving three separate, but interacting, stages: sensory memory (sensory register), short-term memory, and long-term memory. Sensory memory provides brief storage of sensory stimuli. While it seems to be capable of storing a great deal of information, this information is retained for no more than a few seconds. Information in sensory memory is transferred to short-term memory (STM) when it becomes the focus of attention. STM holds a limited amount of information, and without rehearsal, information in STM begins to fade within 30 seconds. Although the process involved in converting information from STM to long-term memory (LTM) is not well understood, it is likely due to the type of rehearsal: Information is more likely to be transferred to LTM with elaborative rehearsal, which involves relating new information to existing information. The capacity of LTM seems to be unlimited.

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Metamemory and Metacognition

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Metamemory refers to knowledge about one's own memory processes. It is one aspect of metacognition, which refers to "knowing about knowing"-i.e., awareness and monitoring of one's own cognitive state.

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Procedural and Declarative Memory

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LTM is conceptualized as consisting of procedural and declarative aspects: Procedural memory stores information about how to do things ("learning how"). Declarative memory mediates the acquisition of facts ("learning that or what"). It is further subdivided into semantic and episodic memory.

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Schemas

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A schema is a knowledge structure or framework about a particular topic or process that influences how information and events are interpreted and responsed to.

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Stress Inoculation

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Stress inoculation is a cognitive-behavioral technique used to help individuals cope with stressful and other aversive states by enhancing their coping skills. It includes three stages: cognitive (education); skills acquisition; and application.