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257 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is Physiology?
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The study of the function of the body...how the body works to maintain life.
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What is Pathophysiology?
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The study of how physiological processes are altered in disease or injury.
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What are the steps to the Scientific Method?
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Observation, Hypothesis, Experiment, Conclusion.
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What is a Theory?
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A general statement explaining natural phenomena that is based on proven hypotheses (experiments)
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What does testing a hypotheses involve?
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Experimental and control groups, Quantitative measurements performed blindly, and analysis of data.
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Phases of Clinical Trials in drug development
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1) Toxicity & metabolism tested in healthy human volunteers. (2) Effectiveness & toxicity tested in target population (3) Widespread test of drug in diverse population. (4) Drug is tested for other uses.
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Homeostasis
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The maintenance of the internal environment constancy. Failure leads to illness or death. Maintained mainly by Negative Feedback loops.
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The 2 regulatory mechanisms of homeostasis.
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Intrinsic: The control is built-in the organ begin regulated.
Extrinsic: Control comes from outside of organ by nervous (body temp) or endocrine (blood glucose level) system. |
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Negative Feed Back for Homeostasis
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The response OPPOSES the stimulus. Counteracts further changes to bring homeostasis.
Ex If blood glucose levels fall below normal then the effectors act to increase the BGL |
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Positive Feed Back for Homeostasis
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The response ENHANCES the original stimulus to speed up the change.
Ex: Blood clotting after childbirth or a wound bleeding, protein digestion, and generation of nerve signals |
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Tissues
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Groups of specialized cells organized to perform a limited number of functions.
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Epithelial Tissue
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Covers body surfaces and lines body cavities. Avascular. Regularly replaced, tightly joined cells.
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Where to find simple cuboidal ET
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Kidney tubule
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Where to find simple columnar ET
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Intestinal Lining
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Where to find Pseudo-stratified Columnar ET
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Trachea
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Where to find stratified Columnar ET
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Salivary gland duct
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Types of exocrine gland structure
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Simple, acinar, simple branched acinar.
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Smooth Muscle
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Unstriated, involuntary, found in the walls of hollow organs (intestines, blood vessels), controlled by ANS.
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Supporting Glial Cells
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Provide physical and functional support for neurons. Perform phagocytosis. 5x more abundant than neurons.
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Atom
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Smallest units of the chemical elements. Composed of a nucleus (containing protons/neutrons) and an electron shell.
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Protons
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Positive charge
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Neutrons
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No charge
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Electrons
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Negative charge
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Atomic mass
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the sum of protons and neutrons in an atom.
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Atomic Number
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The number of protons in an atom. Is unique for every element.
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The number of electrons equals...
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the number of protons
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First shell can have only...
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2 Electrons
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2nd shell can have up to...
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8 Electrons
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Valence Electrons
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Electrons present in the outermost shell. These can participate in chemical reactions and form bonds.
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Isotopes
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Different forms of the same atoms. Contain same # of protons but DIFFERENT # of neutrons...atomic # is the same but atomic mass is different.
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There are 2 types of atoms
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Inert (the outermost electron shell is completely full) and Reactive (the outermost electron shell is partially full)
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Atoms unite together to form...
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molecules.
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An atom with a partially full outermost electron shell is a ...
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Reactive atom.
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Atoms unite together by
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bonds
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Molecules form by...
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Chemical bonding between valence electrons of atoms.
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Number of bonds is determined by...
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The number of electrons needed to complete (saturate) the outermost shell.
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Types of chemical bonds
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Covalent, Ionic, and Hydrogen
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Covalent Bonds
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Occur when atoms SHARE valence electrons. Two types: non-polar covalent bonds & polar covalent bonds.
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Nonpolar Bonds
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Electrons are shared equally between the two atoms.
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Polar Covalent Bond
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Electrons are shared UNEQUALLY, pulled more towards one atom. Molecules have + and - poles. Oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorous have strong pull so tend to form polar molecules.
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Ionic Bonds
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Occure when valence electrons are transferred from one atom to another (losing or gaining), forming charged atoms (ions). Bonds form by attractions of (+) & (-) charges.
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Cation
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An atom that loses electrons (+ charge)
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Anion
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An atom that gains electrons (- charged)
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Which is stronger, ionic or polar covalent bonds?
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polar covalent bonds.
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Hydrogen bonds form...
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between molecules with polar covalent bonds. Hydrogen bonds are weaker than ionic and covalent bonds.
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How are water molecules formed?
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The negatively charged Oxygen atom attracts the positively charged hydrogen atoms of the adjacent molecules.
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Acids
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Release (H+) in a solution (proton donor). Have a pH less than 7.
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Bases
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Absorb (H+) of a solution (proton acceptor). Have a pH more than 7.
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Common Acids
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Hydrochloric acid, Phosphoric Acid, Nitric Acid, Sulfuric Acid, Carbonic Acid.
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Common Base
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Sodium Hydroxide, Potassium Hydroxide, Calcium Hydroxide, Ammonium Hydroxide.
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pH scale
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Symbol for H+ Concentration of a solution. On a scale from 0-14. Pure H2O is Neutral & has pH of 7.
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Buffers
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Are molecules that prevent changes in pH by either combining with or releasing H+s.
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Normal range of blood pH
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7.35-7.45
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ph for Acidosis
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pH < 7.35
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pH for Alkalosis
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pH > 7.45
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Organic Molecules contain
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Carbon and Hydrogen
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Carbon has...
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4 electrons in outer shell. Bonds Covalently to fill outer shell with 8 electrons
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Serves as "Backbone" to which more reactive Functional groups are added.
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Carbon
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Carbonyl group forms:
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Ketones and Aldehydes
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Hydroxyl group forms
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Alcohols
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Carboxyl group forms
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Organic Acids (lactic and acetic acids)
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Carbohydrates are...
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organic molecules containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Types include Monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides.
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Monosaccharides
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Simple sugars. One molecule of sugar such as glucose, fructose, and galactose.
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Disaccharides
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2 Monosaccharides joined covalently. Ex: Sucrose (table sugar), Lactose (milk sugar), Maltose (malt sugar).
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Polysaccharides
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Complex Carbohydrate. Chains of Monosaccharides joined together by covalent bonds. Ex: Starch in plants, Glycogen in animals. Stored in liver and skeletal muscles.
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Glycogen stored in the liver can be converted into...
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Free Glucose which can be released into the blood stream to be used by all body cells as a source of energy.
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Glycogen stored in the skeletal muscles can be converted into
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Glucose which is trapped inside the muscle fibers to be used by the skeletal muscles only to get energy.
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Formation of Disaccharides
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Occurs by removing water molecule out of Two Monosaccharides. H+ & OH- are removed producing H2O. This is called dehydration.
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Digestion of Polysaccharides
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Occurs by hydrolysis (reverse of dehydration). H2O molecule is split and added, H+ added to one Monosaccharide, OH- to other. Polysaccharide are hydrolyzed into disaccharides, then to Monosaccharides.
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Insoluble in polar solvents such as water and hydrophobic.
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Lipids
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Triglycerides
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Formed by condensation (dehydration reaction) of: One alcohol molecule (glycerol) and 3 Fatty Acids.
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Saturated Fatty Acids
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Hydrocarbon chains of fatty acids are joined by single covalent bonds.
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Unsaturated Fatty Acids
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There are Double Bonds within the hydrocarbon chains.
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Hydrolysis of Triglycerides releases free fatty acids which can be either:
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Used for energy or converted in the Liver to ketone bodies.
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Ketoacidosis
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Occurs when ketone bodies in blood lower pH.
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Phospholipids are...
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lipids that conatin a phosphate group. Phosphate part is polar & hydrophilic. Lipid part is nonpolar & Hydrophobic.
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The plasma membrane that surrounds each cell is made up of double layer of...
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Phospholipids
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Phosphate part of phospholipids is...
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polar and hydrophilic
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The lipid part of phospholipids is...
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nonpolar and hydrophobic
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What do phospholipids do in water?
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Aggregate into Micelles...Polar part interacts with water and nonpolar part is hidden in middle.
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Phosopholipids act as what in the lungs?
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Surfactants, by reducing surface tension.
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Steroids
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Nonpolar and insoluble in water. All have three 6-carbon rings joined to a 5-carbon ring.
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Cholesterol is...
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Precursor for steroid hormones and a component of cell membranes.
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Cholesterol
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Carried in the blood by 2 Lipoproteins: LDL (Low density lipoproteins=BAD) and HDL (High density lipoproteins=GOOD)
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Recommended Levels for Cholesterol
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Total Cholesterol: Less than 200mg/dL
HDL: Over 40 mg/100ml LDL: Less than 100 mg/1000ml Triglycerides: Less than 100 mg/100ml |
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Prostaglandins
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Are Fatty Acids with cyclic hydrocarbon group. Produced and active in most tissues. Serve many regulatory functions.
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Hydrogenation of Oils
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Adding Hydrogen to oil. Changing unsaturated Fatty Acids into Saturated fatty acids. Oils become solid then at room temp (margarine). used to prolong the shelf-life of processed foods.
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Proteins
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The building blocks of the body. Important for the manufacute of hormones and enzymes. Important for the production of antibodies and for maintaining fluid and electrolyte balance of the body. Are made of long chains of amino acids.
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How many different amino acids?
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20
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Types of Amino Acids
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Essential: Can not be produced inside our body.
Nonessential: Can be produced from other amino acids. |
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Peptides
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Are short chains of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. have the same chemical structure as proteins but are shorter in length. Formed by dehydration reactions.
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2 Amino Acids are called...
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Dipeptide
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3 Amino Acids are called...
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Tripeptide
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If < 100 amino acids is called...
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Polypeptide
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>100 Amino Acids is called...
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Protein.
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A typical protein contains about how many amino acids?
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1000
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A protein conjugated with carbohydrates?
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Glycoprotein
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A protein conjugated with lipids?
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Lipoprotein
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Nucleic Acids
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DNA and RNA. Made of long chains of Nucleotides. Each Nucleotide is made up of: Sugar, Phosphate Group, and Nitrogenous Base (Pyrimidines and Purines)
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DNA
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Contains the Genetic Code. It's Deoxyribose sugar (5C) is covalently bonded to 1 of 4 bases: Guanin or Adenine (purines) or Cytosine or Thymine (pyrimidines). Chain is formed by sugar of one nucleotide bonding to phosphate of another. Each base forms H-bonds with other bases which holds 2 strands of DNA together.
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RNA (Ribonucleic Acid)
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Consists of a long chain of nucleotides joined together by sugar-phosphate bond. It's Ribose sugar is bonded to 1 of 4 bases: Guanin or Adenine, Cytosine or Uracil (replaces thymine). Singel stranded.
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Types of RNA
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mRNA (messenger), tRNA (Transfer), rRNA (Ribosomal)
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DNA vs RNA
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DNA: Contains Deoxyribose sugar, thymine instead of Uracil, Controls protein synthesis, Double Stranded.
RNA: Contains Ribose Sugar, Nitrogen base Uracil instead of Thymine, Carries the message from the nucleus to the cytoplasm to direct protein snythesis. Singel Stranded. |
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Apoptosis
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Programmed cell death. Carried out by Lysosomes.
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Sometimes called 'Suicide Bags'
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Lysosomes because of their involvement in apoptosis.
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Peroxisomes
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Organelles of the cell. Contain oxidative enzymes, present mainly in the liver and kidneys and are important for the process of detoxification.
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Smooth ER contains...
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enzymes for steroid synthesis and inactivation.
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Golgi Complex
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A stack of flattened sacs. Vesicles containing cell products enter from ER, contents are modified and leave from the other side. Lysosomes and Secretory vesicles are formed in Golgi. It is the Packaging System in the cell. (think UPS or mail)
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Genes are...
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Lengths of DNA that code for synthesis of a specific protein.
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Genetic Expression involves
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Transcription and Translation.
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Genetic Transcription
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mRNA is formed.
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Genetic Translation
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mRNA carries info for how to make a protein. Transported out of Nucleus to Ribosomes where proteins are made.
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Transcription produces 4 types of RNA:
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(1)pre-mRNA (altered in nucleus to form nRNA (2)mRNA (contains the code for synthesis of specific proteins. (3) tRNA (decodes the info conatined in mRNA (4) rRNA (forms part of ribosomes)
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Genome
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Refers to ALL Genes in an individual or species. Each human has 30,000-40,000 different genes.
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Proteome
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Refers to ALL proteins produced by a genome.
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Histones
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Together with DNA makes up Chromatin. It is positively charged. Forms spools around which negatively charged DNA strands wrap.
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2 types of Cell Death
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Necrosis (when pathological changes kill a cell - lack of blood supply) & Apoptosis (a normal physiological response - aka: Programmed Cell Death)
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Enzymes
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Biological catalysts that increast rate of chemical reactions. Most are proteins. Lower the activation energy required to start a reaction. Do NOT change the reaction pathway. Very specific.
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Mechanism of Enzyme Action
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Enzyme structure enables them, they have highly-ordered 3-dimensional shapes. They contain pockets called active sites into which sustrate (reactants)fit. Enzymes act by bringing substrates close together so they can react.
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Sequence of events in enzyme action
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Substrates fit inot active sites. Enzyme-substrate complex formed. Reaction occurs. Products dissociate. Enzyme is unaltered (not consumed in the reaction).
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Phosphatases enzyme action
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Remove phosphate groups.
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Kinases enzyme action
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Add phosphate groups
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Amylase
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Enzyme for digestion of starch
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Pepsin
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Enzyme for digestion of proteins.
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Lipase
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Enzyme for digestion of lipids
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Lactate Dehydrogenase
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Enzyme for break down of Lactic Acid into Pyruvic Acid and water.
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Lactase
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Enzyme for digestion of Lactose.
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Enzymes of optimal...
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temperature and pH ranges. Usually near the normal physiological values.
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Cofactors
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Necessary for normal activity of enzymes (helpers). Include metal ions such as Ca, Mg, Mn, Cu, Zn, and selenium.
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Coenzymes
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Necessary for normal activity of enzymes (helpers). Derived from vitamins. Transport small molecules needed by enzymes.
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How are enzymes activated?
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Many by phosphorylation or sometimes by ligands (small molecules) called 2nd messengers.
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How are enzymes inactivated?
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Dephosphorylation
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Effect of Substrate Concentration on enzyme reaction.
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Rate of product formation increases as substrate concentration increases until reaction rate reaches a plateau. At this point an enzyme is said to be saturated.
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Law of Mass Action
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Direction of reaction is from side of equation where concentration is higher to sider where concentration is lower...Some enzymatic reaction are reversible
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Metabolic Pathways
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Sequences of enzymatic reactions that begin with initial substrate, progress through intermediates, and end with a final product.
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Inborn Errors of metabolism
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Due to inherited defects in genes for enzymes in metabolic pathways. Metabolic disease can result from either increase in intermediated (prior) or decrease in products (after defective enzyme).
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Phenylketonuria (PKU)
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Caused by absence of Phenylalanine Hydoxylase Enzyme which breaks down the amino acid Phenylalanine to Tyrosine. Phenylalanine accumulates in the blood leading to toxic effects on the nervous system. Affects on in every 10,000 births in US. Treatment=restricting proteins and the artificial sweetener aspartame in diet.
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Energy
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Is the capacity to do work and is required to do any work. Living cells need continuous supply of energy to perform functions.
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Law of Mass Action
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Direction of reaction is from side of equation where concentration is higher to sider where concentration is lower...Some enzymatic reaction are reversible
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Metabolic Pathways
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Sequences of enzymatic reactions that begin with initial substrate, progress through intermediates, and end with a final product.
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1st Law of Thermodynamics
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Energy is neither created nor destroyed.
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Inborn Errors of metabolism
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Due to inherited defects in genes for enzymes in metabolic pathways. Metabolic disease can result from either increase in intermediated (prior) or decrease in products (after defective enzyme).
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2nd Law of Thermodynamics
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Whenever Energy is converted from one form to another, the amount of useful energy decreases. (Some energy is converted into a less useful form of energy (Heat).
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Phenylketonuria (PKU)
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Caused by absence of Phenylalanine Hydoxylase Enzyme which breaks down the amino acid Phenylalanine to Tyrosine. Phenylalanine accumulates in the blood leading to toxic effects on the nervous system. Affects on in every 10,000 births in US. Treatment=restricting proteins and the artificial sweetener aspartame in diet.
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Endergonic REactions
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Require input of energy to proceed. Products contain more energy than reactants. (Ex: make ATP)
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Exergonic Reaction
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Release energy as they proceed. Products contain less energy than reactants. (Ex: Breaking down ATP)
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Energy
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Is the capacity to do work and is required to do any work. Living cells need continuous supply of energy to perform functions.
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1st Law of Thermodynamics
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Energy is neither created nor destroyed.
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If a molecule GAINS electrons it is..
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Reduced
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2nd Law of Thermodynamics
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Whenever Energy is converted from one form to another, the amount of useful energy decreases. (Some energy is converted into a less useful form of energy (Heat).
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Endergonic REactions
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Require input of energy to proceed. Products contain more energy than reactants. (Ex: make ATP)
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Exergonic Reaction
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Release energy as they proceed. Products contain less energy than reactants. (Ex: Breaking down ATP)
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If a molecule GAINS electrons it is..
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Reduced
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If a Molecule loses electrons it is ...
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Oxidized
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A Reducing Agent
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Donates Electrons
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An Oxidizing Agent
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Accepts Electrons
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Oxidation-Reduction
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Always coupled reactions. Often involve transfer or Hs instead of electrons.
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Coenzymes that play important roles as H carriers are...
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NAD (Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide) Vit B3 and FAD (Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide) Vit B2
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Metabolism
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All reactions in the body that involve energy transformations. Divided into 2 categories, Catabolism and anabolism.
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Catabolism
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Breaking down of molecules to release energy. Primary source of energy for making ATP.
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Anabolism
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Formation (synthesis) of larger molecules. Requires energy. Source of body's large energy-storage compounds.
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Glycolysis
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Breaking down of Glucose Molecules. Does not require O2 (anaerobic). Occurs in the cytoplasm. Glucose molecules split into 2 molecules of pyruvate. Small amount of energy released: 2ATP + 2 NADH (uses 2 ATP but produces 4 ATP)
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Before energy can be obtained from glycolysis...
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Glucose must be activated with 2 ATPs (phosphorylation - trapping glucose inside cell)
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Lactic Acid Pathway
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For Glycolysis to continue, NADHs produced need to give Hs away...to either pyruvate creating lactic acid (anaerobic) or to O2 forming water (aerobic).
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Lactic Acid Fermentation (pathway) in RBCs
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Don't have mitochondria. Use only lactic acid pathway.
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Lactic Acid Fermentation (pathway) in Skeletal and Heart Muscles...
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Occurs when oxygen supply falls below critical level. During heavy exercise or vascular blockage.
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Glycogenesis
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Storage of glucose as glycogen mostly by skeletal muscles and liver.
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Glycogenolysis
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Breaking down of glycogen to release glucose as glucose 6-phosphate. Phosphate groups trap glucose molecules inside cells.
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Cori Cycle
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Some lactic acid produced in skeletal muscle goes to liver where it is converted back into pyruvate then to glucose and glycogen (Gluconeogenesis - formation of new glucose).
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Purpose of Cori Cycle
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Restores skeletal muscle glycogen which was consumed during exercise and remove lactic acid from the blood.
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Aerobic Respiration
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Occurs in the mitochondria. Required the presence of O2. Pyruvates are broken down and CO2 is produced. Large amount of Energy is produced (34-36ATP)
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Aerobic respiration begins when...
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pyruvate formed by glycolysis enters mitochondria. CO2 is clipped off pyruvate forming Acetyl CoA. CO2 goes to lungs to be excreted.
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Krebs Cycle begins with...
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Acetyl CoA combins with Oxaloacetic Acid to form citric acid...in a series of reactions citric acid is converted back to oxaloacetic acid to complete the pathway. Large amounts of ATPs are produced by electron transfer chain (ETC)
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Electron Transport Chain
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Chain of molecules in inner mitochondrial membrane. Molecules undergo oxidation/reduction reactions and energy is released. Energy released is used to synthesize ATP by oxidative phosphorylation. O2 is the last electron acceptor and water is formed.
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Function of Oxygen
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Allow electron transport to continue by acting as the final electron acceptor. O2 accepts these electrons and combines with 4Hs to form 2 water molecules. Without O2 the Kreb's cycle would stop and respiration becomes Anaerobic.
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ATP Formation
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Can be made 2 ways: Direct (substrate-level) phosphorylation and Oxidative phosphorylation.
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Direct (substrate-level) phosphorylation
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Where ATP is generated when bonds break. 2ATPs in Glycolysis are made this way. 2 ATPs/glucose in Kreb's made this way.
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Oxidative Phosphorylation
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In Kreb's Cycle. Where ATP generated by ETC. 30-32 ATPs are produced this way (some are used to pump ATP out of the Mitochondria)
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Net Production of ATP
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2 from Glycolysis
2 from Direct Phosphorylation (In Kreb's Cycle) 26 from Oxidative Phosphorylation in ETC TOTAL=30ATP are produced for each Glucose Molecule |
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Fat as an energy source
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Fats can be hydrolyzed to Glycerol and Fatty Acids (these can be modified to run through Kreb's)
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Proteins as an energy source
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Proteins can be broked down to Amino Acids (can be deaminated and run thru Kreb's)
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ATP synthesis is inhibited when...
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more energy is taken in than consumed.
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Glucose is converted into...
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Glycogen and Fat
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A common Substrate for energy & synthetic pathways?
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Acetyl CoA
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Acetyl CoAs can be linked together to form...
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fatty acids
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Fatty Acids + Glycerol = ....
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Fat (Triglycerides)...occurs mainly in Adipose Tissue and Liver
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Most energy stored in the body is in the form of...
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Triglycerides
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Fat yields...
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9 kilocalories/gram
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Carbs and proteins yield ...
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4 Kilocalories/g
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Lipolysis
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The breakdown of fat into fatty acids and glycerol via hydrolysis by lipase.
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A major energy source for many tissues...
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Acetyl CoAs from free fatty acids
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Brown Fat
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A major site for Thermo-genesis in the newborn. Amount of brown fat is greatest at time of birth.
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Triglycerides are continually broken down and resynthesized to...
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Ensure blood will contain fatty acids for aerobic respiration.
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High levels of free fatty acids caused by...
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Lots of fat being broken down as in fasting, dieting and diabetes (gives breath an acetone smell)
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Nitrogen Balance =
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N ingested vs N excreted. In Healthy adults the amount of N excreted should = amount ingested.
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Excess amino acids
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are NOT stored in the body. They can be converted into Carbs (Gluconeogenesis) or Fat (Lipogenesis)
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How many amino acids are used to build proteins?
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20. 12 can be produced by body (non-essential) and 8 must come from diet (essential amino acids).
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Origin rich in essential amino acids is
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proteins of animal origin.
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Transamination
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The transfer of Amine Group from one amino acid to create another one. New amino acids can be produced. Catalyzed by Transaminase.
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Oxidative Deamnination
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The process by which excess Amino Acids are eliminated. Ex: -NH2 (Amine group) is removed from Glutamic Acid forming keto acid and ammonia. Ammonia is converted to urea and excreted. Keto Acid goes to Kreb's or to Fat or Glucose.
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Gluconeogenesis
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The formation of new Glucose from noncarbohydrade molecule. During prolonged fasting most of blood glucose is produced in the liver by gluconeogenesis.
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New glucose can be formed via gluconeogenesis from...
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Amino Acids, Glycerol, and Lactate.
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Gluconeogenesis of Amino Acids
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Amino acids are converted to Keto Acids, then Pyruvate, then Glucose.
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Gluconeogenesis of Glycerol
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From the breakdown of lipids.
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Gluconeogenesis of Lactate
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Lactates are 1st converted into Pyruvates then to Glucose (Cori Cycle)
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Major source of energy for the brain...
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the brain.
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Glycolysis
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Breakdown of Glucose into 2 Pyruvate
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Glycogenesis
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Formation of Glycogen from Glucose.
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Glycogenolysis
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Breaking down of Glycogen to release Glucose.
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Gluconeogenesis
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Formation of Glucose from noncarbohydrate.
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Lipolysis
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Breakdown of lipids into fatty acids and glycerol
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Lipogenesis
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Formation of lipids for storage
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Ketogenesis
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Formation of Ketone Bodies from fatty acids. Occurs in the liver.
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Distribution of water in our body
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67% is in Intracellular Compartment
33% is in Extracellular Compartment (outside cells) (ECF = extracellular fluid) |
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Extracellular Fluid Distribution
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Extracellular Fluid accounts for %33 of total body water.
20% of ECF is Blood Plasma. 80% of ECF is Interstitial Fluid (present in between the cells and contained in gel-like matrix) |
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Extracellular Matrix
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A meshwork of collagen and elastin fiber linked to molecules of gel-like ground substance and to plasma membrane integrins.
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What links Intracellular and Extracellular compartments?
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Glycoprotein adhesion molecules.
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Transport across the plasma membrane carried out by...
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Non-carrier mediated transport (Diffusion, Osmosis) or Carrier-Mediated Transport (requiring specific protein transporters & channels - includes facilitated diffusion & active transport)
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Concentration
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The number of molecules in a given unit of volume
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Gradient
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Physical difference between two regions.
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What diffuses readily through the cell membrane?
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Non-polar compounds and also some small polar molecules including CO2 and H2O - Gas exchange occurs by diffusion
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Cell Membrane is impermeable to...
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charged and most polar compounds.
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Charged molecules must have what to move across the cell membrane?
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Ion channels or protein transporters.
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Rate of diffusion depends on...
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Magnitude of the concentration gradient, permeability of the membrane, temperature, and surface area of the membrane.
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Name for diffusion of H2O Molecules?
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Osmosis
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Osmotically Active
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Means the solutes cannot move freely across the membrane.
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Osmotic Pressure
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The force that would have to be exerted to stop osmosis. The "pull" of water. Is proportional to solute concentration. The more concentration of the solute, the more is the osmotic pressure.
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Molecular weight of a molecule is...
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the sum of the atomic weights of its atoms.
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Molecular Wt of NaCl and Glucose
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NaCl=58.5
Glucose=180 |
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Mole
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An amount of any compound equal to its molecular weight in grams contains the same number of molecules as an amount of any other compound equal to its molecular weight in grams.
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One molar solution (1.0M)
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One mole of solute dissolved in water to make 1L of solution. Doesn't specify exact amount of H2O.
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One molal solution (1.0m)
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One mole of solute dissolved in 1 kg (1L) H2O. Measurement of concenctration of solutes (# of molecules) in solutions..
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Osmolality (Osm)
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Total Molality of a solution. Total solute particle concentration. Ex: 1.0m of NaCl yields a 2 Osm solution because NaCl dissociated into Na+ & Cl-
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Tonicity
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The effect of a solution on the osmotic movement of H2O
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Isotonic Solution
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Has the same osmotic pressure as plasma
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Hypertonic solution
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Has higher osmotic pressure than plasma so water moves to the outside of cells - cells shrink
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Hypotonic solution
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Has LOWER osmotic pressure than plasma. Water moves to the inside of cells.
Cells swell. |
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Blood Osmolality
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Maintained around 300m Osm.
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What happens when dehydrated?
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Osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus are stimulated leading to ADH release. This causes kidney to conserve H20
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Protein Carriers exhibit...
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Specificity for single molecule, Competition among substrates for transport, Saturation when all carriers are occupied (transport maximum)
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Facilitated diffusion
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passive transport down concentration gradient by carrier proteins.
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Sodium/Potassium Pump
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Uses ATP to move 3 Na+ out and 2 K+ In - Against theri gradients.
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Secondary Active Transport
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Uses energy from "downhill" transport of Na to drive "uphill" movement of another molecule. Also called coupled transport. ATP required to maintain Na gradient. Important for Oral Rehydration. Glucose helps the absorption of Na then water follows by osmosis.
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Reabsorption
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Transports compound out of urinary filtrate back into blood
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Transcellular Transport
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Moves materials from one side of epithelial cells to the other - through the cell.
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Paracellular Transport
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Moves material through tiny spaces between epithelial cells.
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Bulk Transport
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Movement of large molecules and particles across plasma membrane by endocytosis and exocytosis.
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Membrane Potential
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Difference in electric charge across the plasma membrane. The inside of the cell is negatively charged compared to the outside.
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Resting Membrane Potential (RMP)
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Membrane voltage of cell in unstimulated state (undisturbed). RMP of most cells is -65 to -85 mV
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RMP (resting membrane potential) depends on...
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Concentration of ions inside and out and permeability of each ion (affected most by K+ because it is more permeable)
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Resting membrane potential (RMP) results from...
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Largely negatively charged organic molecules inside the cell but also from Na/K pump (the membrane is more permeable to K than Na)
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Cells communicate with each other by...
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Chemical messengers and electric communication.
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Chemical messengers
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To respond to a chemical signal, the target cell must have a receptor protein specific for chemical messenger. - Paracrine, Hormones (endocrine), and neurotransmitters.
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Paracrine signaling
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cells secrete regulatory molecues that diffuse to nearby target cells.
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Endocrine signaling
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Cells secrete chemical regulators that move through blood stream to distant target cells.
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Synaptic Signaling
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A neuron sends messages using neurotransmitter to another cell via synapses.
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Gap Junction Signaling
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Signals pass directly from one cell to the next.
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