Environmental Science Unit Test: Natural Management

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10 Types of Forests in Canada

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- Boreal

- Pacific Maritime

- Montane Cordillera

- Great Lakes/ St. Lawrence Lowlands

- Acadian Forest

- Taiga Forest

- Columbia Forest

- Carolinian Forest

- Subalpine Forest

- Aspen Parkland

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Boreal Forest

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- Means "northern" in Russian
- A widespread coniferous forest
Types of trees: black spruce, white spruce, Balsam, fir and jack pine
- SPF --> Spruce, Pine, Fir

- Poplar trees are starting to become more popular and beginning to have a greater need
- White birch, tamarack, cedar, and poplar are the secondary trees found in the boreal

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Pacific Maritime Forest

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- Large, fast-growing trees near the coast
- Typical Trees: Red cedar, western hemlock, Sitka spruce, and coastal Douglas fir - Douglas fir and a Sitka spruce are mainly used to make lumber (2x2 or 4x4)

- Western red cedar is for lumber to be used outdoors
- Western hemlock is for lumber (block houses)

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Montane Cordillera Forest

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- In central B.C. and in hills/valleys of southwestern Alberta.
- Ponderosa pine, Engelmann , and Douglas fir is found in this forest
- In this type of forest it is common for clear cutting
- Typical Trees: Douglas fir, lodgepole pine, Engelmann spruce, and trembling aspen.

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Clear-Cutting

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- Every tree is cut down (cheap/fast)

- Cutting a big chunk in one area (all in one spot)

- Method of timber harvesting in which all trees in a forested area are removed in a single cutting

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Shelterwood Cutting

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- Clear-cutting only part of the forest (old growth part)

- Cutting a spot of trees here and there (smaller empty spaces) --> big trees are picked

- Removal of mature, marketable trees in an area in a series of partial cuttings to allow regeneration of a new stand under the partial shade of older trees which are later removed. Typically, this is done by making two or three cuts over a decade.

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Selective Cutting

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- Cutting only mature trees of the right size and type

- Only picking 4 or 5 trees to cut from one area

- Cutting of intermediate – aged, mature, or diseased trees in an uneven aged forest stand, either singly or in small groups. This encourages the growth of younger trees and maintains an uneven –aged stand.

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FMU

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Means "Forest Management Unit"

- It is a well defined and divided land area, predominantly covered by forests, managed on a long-term basis and having a set of clear objectives specified in a forest management plan.

- Total of 46 in Ontario ranging from to 240,000 ha to 1,966,650 ha in size.

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SFL

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Sustainable Forest License

- They give the right to harvest all species of trees found in the licensed area.

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FMP

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"Forest Management Plan"

- Provides details of where, when and how trees will be are harvested and managed for sustainability

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For every FMU...

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There is an SFL and for every SFL there is an FMP

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Pulp/Paper Trees

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- Black spruce

- Engelmann

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Both Paper/Lumber Trees

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- White spruce

- Fir

- Jack Pine

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Lumber Trees

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- Balsam

- Western Hemlock

- Ponderosa Pine

- Douglas Fir

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Canada's 3 Fisheries

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- East coast

- West coast

- Freshwater

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East Coast Fishery

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- This includes fishing near the Atlantic Ocean, Labrador, and the Grand Banks stream which causes a lot of nutrients to be stirred up
• Shallow areas (continental shelves and fishing banks) that are >200m deep --> This allows sunlight to penetrate to the bottom causing a lot of plankton to grow which fish feed on
• Has NEARLY 50 000 fishers and is valued at $1104 million dollars, exporting $2059 million

Species include:
• Cod, Haddock, Scallop, Lobster

• Until recently the Grand Banks and the ocean waters off of the E. Coast were one of the richest fishing grounds in the world
• This part of the industry once had an abundant stock of cod on the Grand Banks but the supply collapsed after warnings of overfishing the resource were ignored
• This resulted in a major economic loss since the cod fishery was halted
• The fish stocks in the East Coast declined and shut down in 1992

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West Coast Fishery

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• Area off of the coast of B.C. in the pacific ocean
• Shortly after the E. Coast industry collapse the West coast industry faced a collapse in their salmon stock due to overfishing
• Has over 14 000 fishers and is valued at $394 million dollars, exporting $829 million

Species Include:
• Salmon, Herring, Tuna, Shellfish

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Freshwater Fishery

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• Was overfished an many invasive species continue to threaten the dwindling fish populations
• Is mostly for recreation, sport and tourism after its decline in production
• Has 6900 fishers and is valued at $28 million dollars, exporting $148 million

Species Include:
- Bass, Walleye, Pike

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7 Types of Fishing

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- Gill netting
- Drift Netting
- Longlining
- Pelagic long-line
- Demersal long-line
- Purse Seine
- Trawling

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Gill Netting

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• Uses curtains of netting suspended by a system of floats and weights
• Either anchored to sea floor or float at the sea surface
• Netting is almost invisible, fish swim right into it; and their gills get caught

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Drift Netting

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• Large floating nets
• Unbreakable and invisible to most sea species
• Likely to entangle large pelagic species: dolphins, whales, sharks, turtles and rays
• Drift nets have earned the nickname "walls of death" --> not anchored and float freely

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Long-lining

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• Long-lines are horizontal sets of fishing hooks
• Set on the ocean floor: demersal long lines
• Set near the surface: pelagic long-lines
• Long-lines can be tens of kilometres long
• Can carry thousands of hooks
• Baited hooks are attached to the long-line by short lines called shoods that hang off the main line

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Pelagic Long-line

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• Not anchored; set to drift near the surface of the ocean
• Attached radio beacon tracks line to haul in catch
• Usually used to catch large tuna and billfish species

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Demersal Longline

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• Anchored to the sea floor
• Buoys mark line
• Same as pelagic long line

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Purse Seine

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• Uses large wall of net to encircle schools of fish
• Drawstring pulls bottom of netting closed, like a purse
• Herds schools of fish into the center
• Some purse seines can unintentionally catch other animals (by catch)

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Trawling

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• Midwater and bottom trawling
• Bottom trawling is bad since anything and everything gets picked up, destroying the ocean floor, bottom feeding fish, plant life, and parts of the ecosystem. It also stirs up any settled pollutants on the bottom
• Sediment from trawling is visible from outer space for 6 hours due to its destruction of the floor

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West Coast Salmon Fishery Collapse

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- There was a large decline in their catch numbers due to the salmon being overharvested as fishing fleets became more efficient.
- International factor where both Canada and the U.S. shared the fishing waters.
- Both nations disagreed about relative allotments and other details.
- Management of salmon stocks were interrupted as they were spawning due to fishing boats catching them.

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East Coast Cod Fishery Collapse

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- The once-bountiful stock of Cod on the Grand Banks collapsed when warnings were ignored and the resource was overharvested.
- There were problems with international waters and fishing boats catching cod.
- Legislation was put in place to conserve the remaining supply and to minimize the effects of the decline.

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What are Canada's mining resources?

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1. Metallic Minerals
• Rare minerals: Gold, silver and platinum
• Strength: Iron
• Human need: Copper, nickel, uranium

2. Fossil Fuels
• In the 1800s coal was the important fuel and now oil and gas power our nation
• E.g. coal, natural gas, and crude oil

3. Industrial Minerals
• Asbestos, potash, diamond, gravel, salt, sand

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Where are Canada's Mining resources?

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Most are found within the Canadian Shield landform region and oil sands are located in Alberta

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2 Main Mining Techniques

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Surface mining and subsurface mining

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Surface Mining

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removing minerals from near the earth's surface

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Types of Surface Mining

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- Strip mining
- Open pit Mining

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Subsurface Mining

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minerals removed from below the earth's surface

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Type of Subsurface Mining

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- Underground mining

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Underground Mining

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- Miners dig deep into the earth
- Explosives are used to blast rock apart
- Miners set up supports to stop the ceiling from caving in
- They then clear the good minerals and the muck away

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Open Pit Mining

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- Can delve deep into the earth
- Holes are drilled and filled with explosives
- Transported to market

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Strip Mining

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- Remove top of land
- Blast with Dynamite
- Material is shipped to market or be processed
- *Bulldozers, power shovels, or stripping wheels remove large chunks of the Earth's surface in strips

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Smelting

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Process in which desired metal is separated from the other elements in an ore mineral. It is the heating up of the ore to remove the mineral that is wanted.

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Mineral Leaching

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Process where specific solid materials are leached out to extract a particular mineral. Leaching involves mixing the ore with a carefully chosen liquid that dissolves either the mineral or the unwanted minerals. The liquid is often an acid.

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Oil Sands (What are they)

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A natural mixture of sand, water, clay, and bitumen (oil too thick/heavy to flow/ be pumped w/o dilution)

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Where are the oil sands located?

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Canada has 3 deposits located in Athabasca, Peace River, and Cold Lake with the oil sands at the surface near Fort McMurry

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Methods of oil extraction (Oil sands)

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- Mining and drilling (in situ)

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There are two methods of drilling

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--> Cyclic steam simulation drilling and steam assisted gravity drainage drilling

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Amount of oil Canada has

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- Canada has the 3rd largest oil reserves in the world
- 167 billion barrels are located in the Canadian oil sands

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Pros/ Advantages of Oil Sands

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- Generation of income
- Job creation
- Security from dependence on foreign oil sources
- Moderate cost
- large potential supplies
- Easily transported within and between countries
- Efficient distribution system in place
- Technology is well developed

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Cons/ Disadvantages of the Oil Sands

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- The technologies involved in mining and processing oil sands "make the product among the most environmentally costly sources of transport fuel in the world"(Pembina Institute)

- The mining of oil sands calls for massive disruption of forests and soils over a huge area of Boreal forest in N. Alberta
- Severe land disruption from surface mining

- Approx. 2 tons of oil sands must be cleared resulting in a change of landscape to a terrain of open-pit mines, huge waste storage ponds, and other disturbed spaces

- Mining/ processing of oil sands is very intensive

- Produces large amounts of CO2 and air pollution when burned

- Depletes and contaminates water supplies
- water pollution from mining residues
- large amount of water needed for processing

- Low net energy yield