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30 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Dispute in 17th century between men of letters in France and England. One group held that the works of the Greeks and Romans had never been surpassed. The other group, pointing to science, art, literature, and invention, declared that their own time was better than the ancients because building on work of their predecessors achievements. Quarrel never settled but in 1700 a great many people were in the Modern camp
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ANCIENTS AND MODERNS
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Handel's oratorio - first performed in 1741. This, along with great church works of composers such as Bach(St, Matthew's Passion) are indications of the continuing religious fervor of the first half of the 18th century (- this despite the "Modern" notions of the "Watchmaker" god that had become accepted by many who had been influenced by scientific views.) Handel's, Bach's and Vivaldi's music considered "baroque" in style
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THE MESSIAH
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Lutherans of Germany were stirred by this movement ( founder was Speyner) which stressed the inner experience of ordinary persons as distinct from the doctrines taught and debated in theological faculties. Quest for inner illumination of soul rather than of reason - contrary to main thrust of Age of Enlightenment. Idea of personal relationship with God and church composed of small groups not large congregations. This religious urge for improvement of individual rather than of social institutions not central to idea of progress - but not just conservative either. In fact, usually critical of existing order. Concerned that dominant church institutions of day not reaching people
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PIETISM
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Within Church of England, while a student at Oxford this man joined group of like-minded men for prayer and meditation. Concerned that in increasingly urbanized society conditions of masses deteriorating and yet churches empty because not reaching people in their misery. Therefore, emphasized good works and teaching of poor - getting out to people rather than waiting for them to come into what were mostly empty churches. Itinerant preaching - large crowds. Traveled 1/4 million miles in 50 years in Britain. He and George Whitfield helped start Great Awakening in America in 1740s. Democratizing effect - stressed individual worth and spiritual consciousness. Had 1/2 million followers at end of life(1791) - in Methodist societies within C of E. Later split and formed own churches though this man never intended to form separate church - just trying to reach more people within Anglican Church. Tended to appeal to popular culture rather than elite and not as much emphasis on doctrine but rather on personal
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JOHN WESLEY
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From whom comes "mesmerism". Austrian physician who created a stir in Paris
by arranging seances where people were touched by a wand or sat in tubs to receive "animal magnetism" in the hope of curing ills. Was an early stage in the discovery of hypnosis. Committee of the Royal Academy of Sciences, after investigation concluded theories to explain these phenomena were without foundation. All part of taste for MYSTIFICATION that was oddly present in the Age of Reason. Also at this time a gullible vogue for popular science - exaggerating claims of real science for control of nature by human manipulation. |
F.A. MESMER
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More mainstream in England and then Continent. This group was men of typical Enlightenment views- pro reason, progress, toleration and humane reforms, respectful to God as creator of universe. Met secretly in lodges, rituals and occult(hidden) knowledge. Men of all walks - nobles, clergy and M.C. - together for self improvement and of others. But aroused suspicion because of "secret" nature of their society.
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FREEMASONRY
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in S. Germany, deviant offshoot of Freemasonry - considered dangerous by Bavarian govt - supressed it in 1786. Later some insisted that Fr. Rev. caused by conspiracy with these guys, philosophes, and other plotters. No basis to this belief. Secrecy was foreign to Enlightenment - relied on publicity.
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ILLUMINATI
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Fr. for Philosopher but not in technical sense. Really were men of letters. popularizers, and publicists. Through them the Enlightenment was spread to greatly expanded reading public. Newspapers and magazines - multiplied. These people reached expanding M.C. and others. Centered in Paris. Promoted in salons.
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PHILOSOPHE
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A philosophe who was also v. wealthy and gave grand entertainments at which his works were discussed. Books On the Mind and On Man - as host encouraged mingling of people and ideas
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HELVETIUS
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French hostess of salon society. 1750 - 1775. Entertained artists and writers at dinner, sometimes helped them financially and introduced them to persons of influence in high society or in government. Also welcomed foreigners such as Horace Walpole and David Hume from England and Poniatowski from Poland.
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MME. DE GEOFFRIN
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Widow of writer(who died in Reign of Terror) who became hostess of salon in Paris even after the Revolution - 1795. Became a writer herself and translated Adam Smith. Her salon remained the center of liberal opposition during the years of Napoleon
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SOPHIE CONDORCET
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Wrote widely read books in post rev. period. Critical of Nap. Among her many ideas she deplored the subordination of women to men that the Revolution had done little to change. It was in these post-Revolutionary salons that much of the French liberalism of the 19th century was born
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MME. DE STAEL
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(man and item) In Paris in mid 18th century - edited most serious of all philosophe enterprises. 17 large volumes 1751 - 1772. Great compendium of scientific technical and historical knowledge with undertone of criticism of existing society and institutions and epitomizing the skeptical, rational and scientific spirit of the age. Not the first encyclopedia but first to have such a distinguised list of contributors or to be conceived as a positive force for social progress. Contributors: Voltaire, Montesquieu, Rousseau, D'Alembert(assitant editor) Buffon, Turgot, Quesnay(physiocrat). Widely read. 25,000 sets sold before revolution. Was placed on Index of Prohibited Books by Roman Catholic Church because contradicted/challenged many of the traditional teachings of the Church.
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DENISE DIDEROT & ENCYCLOPEDIE
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Famous work which included attacks on Christianity. Author considered one of the philosophes - Englishman. Likewise, David Hume the Scottish skeptical philosopher. Other European Phil. - Marquis de Beccaria - sought to humanize the criminal law. Baron Grimm(German) - sent literary newsletter from Paris to his many subscribers
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DECLINE AND FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE BY EDWARD GIBBON
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By Montesquieu - French baron and landed aristocrat. Part of noble resurgence - sat in Parlement of Bordeaux. But went beyond self centered class philosophy. In this great work there were two principle ideas: 1) Forms of govt varied according to climate and circumstances(ex. despotism suited only to large, hot empire; democracy in small city states, etc) 2) Separation of Powers(aimed against royal absolutism in France and overall MUCH MORE IMPORTANT). Admired English Constitution. Influence on Am Const. Technically a reactionary who favored pre Louis XIV order
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THE SPIRIT OF LAWS
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By Voltaire/Francois-Marie Arouet - French, Bourg. Philosophe. This work plus Elements of the Philosophy of Newton brought England increasingly before the consciousness of the rest of Europe(and popularized scientific ideas). Volt - 2ce imprisoned, admirer Mme Pompadour, personal friend to Fred the Great, home at Ferney, 72 volumes of work, interested in Freedom of Thought, NOT interested in political liberties but was interested in religious liberties and Freedom of Press.
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PHILOSOPHICAL LETTERS ON THE ENGLISH (1733)
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By Volt - praised LXIV for splendor of art and literature in his reign. Shows lack of interest in Political Libs. since Sun King been most absolute. Plus, even though satirized the aristocracy in works like Candide, he still rather admired them and liked to hobnob with them. His own origin was from the middle class but godfather was the Abbe de Chateauxneuf.
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AGE OF LOUIS XIV
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Volt fought to clear the memory of Jean Calas, a protestant put to death on the charge of killing a son to prevent his conversion to Rome. Eventually acquitted. After 1740 Volt increasingly involved with issue of religious toleration.
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CALAS AFFAIR
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Volt wrote to exonerate a youth named La Barre who had been executed for defiling a wayside cross.
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LA BARRE EPISODE
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"Crush the infamous thing" meaning bigotry, intolerance and superstition. He (Voltaire) assaulted not only the Catholic Church but the whole Christian view of the world. Argued for "natural religion" and "natural morality" holding that belief in God and the difference between good and evil arose fron reason itself.
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ECRASEZ L'INFAME
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Or Universal History - Volt was first to present a purely secular conception of world history - beginning with ancient China. Earlier writers had all begun with Creation. Volt put JudeoChristian history within sociologial framework. Represented Christianity and all other organized religions as social phenomena or mere human opinions
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ESSAI SUR LES MOEURS
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Swiss, Prot. Lower Class origin, PHilosophe. Felt doubts on all the progress which gave satisfaction to his contemps. - in these two works he argued that civilization was the source of much evil and that life in a "state of nature" were it only possible, would be much better. Deep below reason he sensed the the presence of feeling. Thought best human traits were products of nature - kindness, unselfishness,honesty and true understanding. Religious by temperament but believed in no church, clergy and no revelation. Respect for Bible. God not merely as first cause but also as God of love and beauty. (FEARED BY CHURCHES AS MOST DANGEROUS OF ALL INFIDELS).
MAN OF FEELING, CHILD OF NATURE - FORERUNNER OF ROMANTICISM. |
ARTS AND SCIENCES(1750) & ORIGIN OF INEQUALITY AMONG MEN(1753): JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU
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ROUSSEAU - in this work, like Hobbes he talks of "state of nature" as brutish condition - need for social contract but among people - impose social control/contract rather than political contract. Fuse individual wills into General Will for common good. General WIll would be sovereign, sacred and inviolable. Govt. was secondary. Not interested in specifics about mechanism of govt. (Unfortunately, Marxists and Communists would later distort Rousseau's philosophy to support their own agendas).
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SOCIAL CONTRACT(1762)
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By Rousseau at request of the Poles who were fighting against the partitions - applied ideas of Social Contract to more concrete form and became the first systematic theorist of a conscious and calculated nationalism. Discussed the sense of membership, of community and fellowship, of responsble citizenship and intimate participation in public affairs - the common will. All modern states, democratic and undemocratic, strive to impart this sense of moral solidarity to their peoples. Rousseau been claimed as hero by both types of state(democratic and communist).
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CONSIDERATIONS ON POLAND
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Novel by Rousseau. About young boy and his education. How children learn. Studied by educators since. This and the Nouvelle Heloise were both novels widely read in all literate classes of society, especially by the women who made a kind of cult of Jean-Jacques. He was literary master - evoked shades of thought and feeling that few had touched before. Spread new respect for common person, a love of common things and impulse for compassion and a sense of the artificiality of aristocratic life. Women nursing, men talking of sentiments, tears fashionable, Marie Antoinette's village - much that was ridiculous. But it is seen as wellspring of modern humanitarianism. Rousseau made many of Fr. aristos lose faith in own superiority.
THIS WAS HIS MAIN CONTRIBUTION TO FRENCH REVOLUTION. |
EMILE(1762)
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In France, somewhat apart from philosophes - some called 'em economists(critically). Unlike the philosophes, many were close to govt. as administrators or advisers. Quesnay was physician to Louis XV. Turgot was an experienced official who became minister to Louis XVI and Dupont de Nemours, associate of Turgot's, became the founder of the industrial family of Du Ponts in the U.S. Concerned with fiscal and tax reform and measures to increase national wealth of France. Opposed guild regulations and price controls as impediements to production and circulation of goods - first to use term laissez-faire
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PHYSIOCRATS
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leave it alone/let them do as they see fit. A principle of economic activity put forward by physiocrats. Physios favored strong govt to overcome obstructions and provide inducements for establishment of new industries such as improvement of infrastructure, BUT, otherwise govt should stay out of commercial affairs - a different approach to the more traditional principle of mercantilism. Physios gave rise to new discipline/study - economics/political economy
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LAISSEZ-FAIRE
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by Sir WIlliam Petty a collection and analysis of quanititative data - statistics. Became useful to new "economists". Economic thinking flourishing
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POLITICAL ARITHMETIC(1690)
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By Scotsman, Adam Smith. Like physiocrats, his purpose was to increase the national wealth by reduction of barriers that hindered its growth. Attacked premises of mercantilism. Prophet of Free Trade, Free Market, Supply and Demand, specialization and division of labor. Famous example of pin factory. Self interest as motivation - realistic - & ultimately as if by an "invisible hand" would result in highest welfare of all. Minimized problems of insecurity of individuals, dangers of excessive dependency of a whole country on imports of essentials. If visible hand of govt. continued to regulate the price of bread it was not for economic reasons but to prevent rioting.
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WEALTH OF NATIONS(1776)
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BY CONDORCET one of the later philosophes. A leading spokesman of the Enlightenment. Was an active figure in the Rev. and also one of its victims. Wrote this while in hiding from the guillotine. Wrote this testament to the Enlightenment. Belief that all peoples would participate eventually in the same progress. Traced development of human history through nine eras, contending that in the tenth era peace, virtue and justice would prevail.
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SKETCH OF THE PROGRESS OF THE HUMAN MIND(1794)
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