English Midterm

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ad hominem argument

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From the Latin meaning "to or against the man," this is an argument that appeals to emotion rather than reason, to feeling rather than intellect.

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allegory

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The device of using character and/or story elements symbolically to represent an abstraction in addition to the literal meaning. In some allegories, for example, an author may intend the characters to personify an abstraction like hope or freedom. The allegorical meaning usually deals with moral truth or a generalization about human existence.

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alliteration

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The repetition of sounds, especially initial consonant sounds in two or more neighboring words (as in "she sells sea shells"). The repetition can reinforce meaning, unify ideas, and/or supply a musical sound.

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allusion

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A direct or indirect reference to something that is presumably commonly known, such as an event, book, myth, place, or work of art. Allusions can be historical (like referring to Hitler), literary (like referring to Kurtz in Heart of Darkness), religious (like referring to Noah and the flood), or mythical (like referring to Atlas).

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ambiguity

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The multiple meanings, either intentional or unintentional, of a word, phrase, sentence, or passage.

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analogy

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A similarity or comparison between two different things or the relationship between them. An analogy can explain something unfamiliar by associating it with, or pointing out its similarity to, something more familiar. Analogies can also make writing more vivid, imaginative, and intellectually engaging.

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antecedent

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The word, phrase, or clause referred to by a pronoun.

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antithesis

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A figure of speech involving a seeming contradiction of ideas, words, clauses, or sentences within a balanced grammatical structure. The resulting parallelism serves to emphasize opposition of ideas. The familiar phrase "Man proposed, God disposes" is an example of antithesis, as is John Dryden's description in The Hind and the Panther: "Too black for heaven, and yet too white for hell."

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aphorism

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A terse statement of known authorship that expresses a general truth or moral principle. (If the authorship is unknown, the statement is generally considered to be a fold proverb.) An aphorism can be a memorable summation of the author's point.

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apostrophe

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A figure of speech that directly addresses an absent or imaginary person or personified abstraction, such as liberty or love. The effect may add familiarity or emotional intensity. William Wordsworth addresses John Milton as he writes, "Milton, thou shouldst be living at this hour: England hath need of thee."

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atmosphere

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The emotional mood created by the entirety of a literary work, established partly by the setting and partly by the author's choice of objects that are described. Even such elements as a description of the weather can contribute to the atmosphere. Frequently, atmosphere foreshadows events.

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caricature

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A representation, especially pictorial or literary, in which the subject's distinctive features or peculiarities are deliberately exaggerated to produce a comic or grotesque effect. Sometimes caricature can be so exaggerated that it becomes a grotesque imitation or misrepresentation. Synonymous words include burlesque, parody, travesty, satire, and lampoon.

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chiasmus

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A figure of speech based on inverted parallelism. It is a rhetorical figure in which two clauses are related to each other through a reversal of terms. The purpose is usually to make a larger point or to provide balance or order. In classical rhetoric, the parallel structures did not repeat words, such as found in Alexander Pope's Essay on Man: "His time a moment, and a point his space." However, contemporary standards allow for repeated words; a commonly cited example comes from John F. Kennedy's inaugural address: "...ask not what your country can do for you--ask what you can do for your country."

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clause

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A grammatical unit that contains both a subject and a verb. An independent, or main, clause expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence. A dependent, or subordinate, clause cannot stand alone as a sentence and must be accompanied by an independent clause.

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colloquialism

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Slang or informality in speech or writing. Not generally acceptable for formal writing, colloquialisms give work a conversational, familiar tone. Colloquial expressions in writing include local or regional dialects.

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conceit

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A fanciful expression, usually in the form of an extended metaphor or surprising analogy between seemingly dissimilar objects. A conceit displays intellectual cleverness due to the unusual comparison being made.

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connotation

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The nonliteral, associative meaning of a word; the implied, suggested meaning. Connotations may involve ideas, emotions, or attitudes.

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denotation

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The strict, literal, dictionary definition of a word, devoid of any emotion, attitude, or color.

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diction

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Related to style, diction refers to the writer's word choices, especially with regard to the their correctness, clearness, or effectiveness.

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didactic

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From the Greek, "didactic" literally means "instructive." Didactic works have the primary aim of teaching or instructing, especially the teaching of moral or ethical principles.

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euphemism

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From the Greek for "good speech," euphemisms are more agreeable or less offensive substitute for generally unpleasant words or concepts.

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extended metaphor

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A metaphor developed at great length, occurring frequently in or throughout a work.

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figurative language

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Writing or speech that is not intended to carry literal meaning and is usually meant to be imaginative and vivid.

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figure of speech

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A device used to produce figurative language. Many compare dissimilar things.

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generic conventions

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This term describes traditions for each genre. These conventions help to define each genre; for example, they differentiate between an essay and journalistic writing or an autobiography and political writing.

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genre

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The major category into which a literary work fits. The basic divisions of literature are prose, poetry, and drama.

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homily

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This term literally means "sermon," but more informally, it can include any serious talk, speech, or lecture involving moral or spiritual advice.

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hyperbole

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A figure of speech using deliberate exaggeration or overstatement. Hyperboles often have a comic effect; however, a serious effect is also possible. Often, hyperbole produces irony at the same time.

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imagery

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The sensory details or figurative language used to describe, arouse emotion, or represent abstractions.

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infer

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To draw a reasonable conclusion from the information presented.

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invective

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An emotionally violent, verbal denunciation or attack using strong, abusive language.

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irony

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The contrast between what is stated explicitly and what is really meant; the difference between what appears to be and what actually is true.

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juxtaposition

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Placing dissimilar items, descriptions, or ideas close together or side by side, especially for comparison or contrast.

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loose sentence

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A type of sentence in which the main idea (independent clause) comes first, followed by dependent grammatical units such as phrases and clauses.

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metaphor

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A figure of speech using implied comparison of seemingly unlike things or the substitution of one for the other, suggesting some similarity.

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metonymy

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A term from the Greek meaning "changed label" or substitute name," metonymy is a figure of speech in which the name of one object is substituted for that of another closely associated with it.

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mood

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The prevailing atmosphere or emotional aura of a work. Setting, tone, and events can affect the mood. In this usage, mood is similar to tone and atmosphere.

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narrative

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The telling of a story or an account of an event or series of events.

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onomatopoeia

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A figure of speech in which natural sounds are imitated in the sounds of words.

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oxymoron

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From the Greek for "pointedly foolish," an oxymoron is a figure of speech wherein the author groups apparently contradictory terms to suggest a paradox.

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paradox

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A statement that appears to be self-contradictory or opposed to common sense, but upon closer inspection contains some degree of truth or validity.

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parallelism

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Also referred to as a parellel construction or parallel structure, this term comes from Greek roots meaning "beside one another." It refers to the grammatical or rhetorical framing of words, phrases, sentences, or paragraphs to give structural similarity.

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parody

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A work that closely imitates the style or content of another with the specific aim of comic effect and/or ridicule.

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pedantic

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An adjective that describes words, phrases, or general tone that is overly scholarly, academic, or bookish.

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periodic sentence

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A sentence that presents its central meaning in a main clause at the end.

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personification

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A figure of speech in which the author presents or describes concepts, animals, or inanimate objects by endowing them with human attributes or emotions.

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point of view

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In literature, the perspective from which a story is told.

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predicate adjectives

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One type of subject complement--an adjective, group of adjectives, or adjective clause that follows a linking verb. It is in the predicate of the sentence, and modifies or describes the subject.

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predicate nominative

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A second type of subject complement--a noun, group of nouns, or noun clause that renames the subject. It, like the predicate adjective, follows a linking verb and is located in the predicate of the sentence.

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prose

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One of the major divisions of genre, "prose" refers to fiction and nonfiction, including all its forms, because they are written in ordinary language and most closely resemble everyday speech.

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repetition

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The duplication, either exact or approximate, of any element of language, such as a sound, word, phrase, clause, sentence, or grammatical pattern.

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rhetoric

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From the Greek for "orator," this term describes the principles governing the art of writing effectively, eloquently, and persuasively.

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rhetorical appeal

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The persuasive device by which a writer tries to sway the audience's attention and response to any given work.

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rhetorical modes

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This flexible term describes the variety, the conventions, and the purposes of the major kinds of writing. Sometimes referred to as modes of discourse, the four most common rhetorical modes and their purposes are as follows: an exposition, argumentation, description, narration.

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rhetorical question

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A question that is asked merely for effect and does not expect a reply. The answer is assumed.

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sarcasm

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From the Greek meaning "to tear flesh," sarcasm involves bitter, caustic language that is meant to hurt or ridicule someone or something.

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satire

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A work that targets human vices and follies, or social institutions and conventions, for reform or ridicule.

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simile

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An explicit comparison, normally using "like," "as," or "if." For example, remember Robbie Burns's famous lines, "O, my love is like a red, red rose / That's newly sprung in June. / O, my love is like a melody, / That's sweetly played in tune."

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style

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An evaluation of the sum of the choices an author makes in blending diction, syntax, figurative language, and other literary devices.

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subject complement

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The word (with any accompanying phrases) or clause that follows a linking verb and complements, or completes, the subject of the sentence by either renaming it or describing it.

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subordinate clause

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Like all clauses, this word group contains both a subject and a verb (plus any accompanying phrases or modifiers), but unlike the independent clause, the subordinate clause cannot stand alone; it does not express a complete thought.

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syllogism

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From the Greek for "reckoning together," a syllogism (or syllogistic reasoning) is a deductive system of formal logic that presents two premises--the first one called "major" and the second "minor"--that inevitably lead to a sound conclusion.

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symbol

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Generally, anything that represents or stands for something else.

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syntax

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The way an author chooses to join words into phrases, clauses, and sentences.

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theme

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The central idea or message of a work, the insight it offers into life.

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thesis

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In expository writing, the thesis statement is the sentence or group of sentences that directly expresses the author's opinion, purpose, meaning, or proposition.

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tone

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Similar to mood, tone describes the author's attitude toward his or her material, the audience, or both.

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transition

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A word or phrase that links different ideas.

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understatement

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The ironic minimizing of fact.

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wit

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In modern usage, wit is intellectually amusing language that surprises and delights.