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52 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
PARADIGM
ch.2 |
A theoretical framework.
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THE THREE LAWS OF THOUGHT
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1. The law of noncontradiction ~ Nothing can both have a property & lack it at the same time.
2. The law of identity ~ Everything is identical to itself. 3. The law of the excluded middle ~ For any particular property, everything either has it or lacks it. |
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REDUCTIO AD ABSURDUM
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An effective technique of refuting a position by reduction to absurdity.
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THE FALLACY OF APPEAL TO IGNORANCE
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All a lack of evidence shows is our own ignorance; it doesn't provide a reason for believing anything.
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A CLAIM'S TRUTH IS ESTABLISHED
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By the amount of evidence in its favor, not by the lack of evidence against it.
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THE FALLACY OF COMPOSITION
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The false assumption that what is true of the parts is also true of the whole.
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JUST BECAUSE SOMETHING IS PHYSICALLY POSSIBLE DOESN'T MEAN IT IS
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probable.
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PERCEPTION IS
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constructive.
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PERCEPTION IS DETERMINED NOT ONLY BY WHAT OUR EYES & EARS & OTHER SENSES DETECT, BUT ALSO BY
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a. What we know
b. What we expect c. What we believe d. What our physiological state is. |
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PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCIES ARE
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Our tendency to have certain perceptual experiences even in the absence of relevant input from our senses.
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OUR MEMORIES ARE
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constructive & selective.
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THE GAMBLER'S FALLACY ~
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The idea that previous events can affect the probabilities in a current random event.
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SUBJECTIVE VALIDATION ~
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When people ignore facts that contradict their beliefs & look for those that confirm them.
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SCIENCE IS A SYSTEMATIC ATTEMPT TO GET AOUND THE LIMITS OF PERSONAL EXPERIENCE BY:
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a. using objective measurements
b. insisting on the corroboration of findings c. demanding public evidence open to public scrutiny d. objective evidence |
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REALISTS ~
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Do not believe that reality depends on our thoughts about it.
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RELATIVISTS ~
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Believe that the way the world is depends on what we think about it.
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SUBJECTIVISM ~
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The belief that each of us creates our own reality.
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FALLACY OF APPEAL TO THE MASSES ~
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A common but fallacious form of reasoning is "It must be true (or good) because everybody believes it (or does it)."
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A CONCEPTUAL SCHEME ~
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a set of concepts for classifying objects.
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THE MOST SERIOUS FLAW OF RELATIVISM IS
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a purely logical one. It is self-refuting because its truth implies its falsity.
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A FACT IS
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a true proposition.
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FOR PLATO, KNOWLEDGE IS
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true belief that is grounded in reality. What grounds our beliefs in reality are the reasons we have for them.
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REASONS CONFER _________ ON PROPOSITIONS.
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probability
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PHILOSOPHICAL SKEPTICISM IS
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the view that we can't know what isn't certain.
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TO HAVE KNOWLEDGE, WE MUST HAVE ADEQUATE
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evidence, & our evidence is adequate when it puts the proposition in question beyond a reasonable doubt.
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THE SEARCH FOR KNOWLEDGE INVOLVES ELIMINATING
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inconsistencies among our beliefs.
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COMMONSENSE SKEPTICISM CONSIDERS
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everything that lacks adequate evidence suspect.
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THE FALLACY OF APPEAL TO AUTHORITY IS WHEN
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we cite someone who is not an authority in the field in question.
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TO BE CONSIDERED AN EXPERT, YOU MUST HAVE DEMONSTRATED
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an ability to correctly interpret data & arrive at conclusions that are justified by the evidence.
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PERCEPTION ~
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a source of knowledge about the external world.
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INTROSPECTION ~
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a source of knowledge about the external world.
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REASON ~
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is the ability to discern the logical relationships between concepts & propositions.
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FOUR TRADITIONAL SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE ARE:
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perception, intorspection, memory, & reason.
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FAITH ~
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belief that does not rest on logical proof or material evidence.
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CONFIRMATION BIAS ~
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The tendency to look for & recognize only evidence that confirms our own views.
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THE AVAILABILITY ERROR OCCURS WHEN:
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people base their judgments on evidence that's vivid or memorable instead of reliable or turstworthy.
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THE FALLACY OF HASTY GENERALIZATION ~
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Making a judgemnt about a group of things on the basis of evidence concerning only a few members of that group.
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A SUPERSTITION IS:
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a belief that an action or situation can have an effect on something even though there is no logical relation between the two.
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AN ARGUMENT IS:
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a group of statements that attempt to justify a claim.
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THE CONCLUSION OF AN ARGUMENT ARE
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is the claim that the statements in an argument attempt to justify.
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THE PREMISES OF AN ARGUMENT ARE
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the statements that supposedly justify the conclusion of an argument.
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AN ENTHYMEME IS
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an argument with unstated premises or conclusions.
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A VALID ARGUMENT IS SUCH THAT
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if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true.
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DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS CAN ESTABLISH THEIR CONCLUSIONS WITH __________; BUT INDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS CAN ONLY ESTABLISH THEIR CONCLUSION WITH A HIGH DEGREE OF ________.
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certainty;
probability. |
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THE MODUS PONENS DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENT CAN BE REPRESENTED AS FOLLOWS:
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If p then q.
P Therefore q. |
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THE MODUS TOLENS DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENT CAN BE REPRESENTED AS FOLLOWS: (2nd one)
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If p then q.
Not q. Threfore, not p. |
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A SOUND DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENT IS WHEN
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the argument is valid & its premises are true.
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AN INDUCTIVE ARGUMENT THAT WOULD ESTABLISH ITS CONCLUSION WITH A HIGH DEGREE OF PROBABILITY IF ITS PREMISES WERE TRUE IS KNOWN AS A _________ ARGUMENT.
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strong
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A STRONG INDUCTIVE ARGUMENT WITH TRUE PREMISES IS KNOWN AS A _________ ARGUMENT.
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cogent
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EMUNERATIVE INDUCTION HAS THE FOLLOWING FORM:
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X percent of the observed members of A are B.
Therefore, X percent of the entire group of A are B. |
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ANALOGICAL INDUCTION HAS THE FOLLOWING FORM:
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Object A has properties, F, G. H, etc. as well as the property Z.
Object B has properties F, G. H, etc. Therefore, object B probably has property Z. |
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INFERENCE TO THE BEST EXPLANATION HAS THE FOLLOWING FORM:
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Phenomena p.
If hypothesis b were true, it would provide the best explanation for p. Therefore, it's probably that b is true. |