Endocrinology Test 1

Front 1

Define Endocrinology

Back 1

isthe study of the endocrine system, secretions and their role at target cellswithin the body. The endocrine and nervous system are the major contributors tothe flow of information between cells and tissues

Front 2

What two systems maintain homeostasis

Back 2

Nervous system

endocrine system

Front 3

The endocrine system maintains a complicated relationship with both the _______ system and the ______ system to assist in development, growth, and metabolism

Back 3

The endocrine system maintains a complicatedrelationship with both the nervous systemand immune system to assist indevelopment, growth and metabolism

Front 4

The endocrine system uses what to convey different tissues

Back 4

Hormones (chemical messengers/neurotransmitters)

Front 5

Hormones transport via the bloodstream to target cells within the body. It is here that they bind to receptors on the cell surface. T/F

Back 5

True

Front 6

Could a neurotransmitter be a hormone?

Back 6

Yes,epinephrine- produced in the adrenal gand. Neurotransmitter and released intothe blood stream to go to distant locations to have its effect

Front 7

Do hormones have any nutritional value ?

Back 7

No, they are non-nutritive

Front 8

What system consists of a variety of glands working together?

Back 8

Endocrine Sytem

Front 9

What type of effects arelocalized actions resulting from cell to cell communication? Is it mechanical or chemical?

Back 9

The paracrine effect.Chemical

Front 10

An ________ is a molecule released by infected cells to bind to other cellsto give some aspect of immunity against the virus. This is described as a _________ solution since it is Released into tissue and has it's affect locally

Back 10

An Interferon is a molecule released by infected cells to bind to other cellsto give some aspect of immunity against the virus. This is described as a paracrine solution since it is Released into tissue and has it's affect locally

Front 11

Hormonesreleased by cells that act on the membrane receptor on the same cell tomodify its activity is called the ______ effect

Back 11

Autocrine

Front 12

An__________solution releases vesicles to the surface and then there are receptors for that specific molecule and the vesicles bind and down regulates the receptors of that molecule

Back 12

An autocrine solution releases vesicles to the surface and then there are receptors for that specific molecule and the vesicles bind and down regulates the receptors of that molecule

Front 13

Will endocrine secretions ever be released outside of the body?

Back 13

no

Front 14

Endocrine secretions are secreted into the _____ _______

Back 14

blood stream

Front 15

Endocrine secretions Usually results from a ductless gland, thus,contents are dumped into the ________ _______

Back 15

extracellular space

Front 16

Endocrine Secretions cont...

From the picture. Why do we seewater stay in the capillary bed and not go out?

Back 16

- Higher solute concentration inside thecapillaries. There is a larger number of solutes inside the capillaries thenthere is outside. The water is kept inside that capillary bed preventing itfrom going out.

-Fluid flow out from the heart- Hydrostaticpressure (I think)

- Fluid going in is osmotic pressure

- If we release hormones from the cells (blue) 80x more fluid flow goes in the direction of the orange arrow than going down thecapillaries. The membranein the capillary is non restrictive. Anything will move across it

Front 17

What type of secretion releases its contents outside of the body? The secretion will be released into a specific part of the body

Back 17

Exocrine secretion

Front 18

exocrine secretion comes from a gland with a _____

Back 18

duct

Front 19

Exocrine Secretions:

what has a message transmission directly from cell to cell, is local, and specificity depends on anatomic location.

Back 19

Gap Junctions

Front 20

exocrine secretions:

what has a message transmission across a synaptic cleft, is local, and specificity depends on anatomic location and receptors

it is aspace; chemical messenger allows us to transfer information from one cell tothe next.

Back 20

synaptic

Front 21

A synapse can happen on 1 of 3 things. What are they?

Back 21

Synapse on another nerve

Synapse on a muscle

Synapse on glandular tissue

Front 22

Exocrine secretions

What has a message transmission by diffusion in interstitial fluid, can diffuse locally, and specificity depends on receptors

Interferon and Prostaglandins are an example

Back 22

Paracrine

Front 23

Exocrine Secretion:

What has a message transmission by circulating bodily fluids, is general, and specificity depends on receptors. It releasesits secretions into the interstitial tissue space but then diffuse easily intothe capillary beds and the rest of the body.

Back 23

Endocrine

Front 24

What organ is considered both exocrine and endocrine?

Back 24

pancreas-10% is endocrine. 90% of mass is exocrine- the pancreas releases its contents to the lumin of the duodenum and it produces/releases digestive enzyme's (proteases, pancreative lipases etc…) - They are released to the lumin of the small intestine and some of them will be excreted which is why it is called an exocrine tissue: released via a duct which will eventually be released to the outside of the body

Front 25

What are the functional units of the nervous system?

Back 25

Neurons

Front 26

The Nervous system maintains a ____ response, but the effects are _____ lived

Back 26

The nervous system maintains a fast response, but the effects are short lived

Front 27

The nervous system is composed of both the ____ and _____ systems

Back 27

somatic and autonomic systems

Front 28

The somatic nervous system travels to

Back 28

to the skeletal muscle

Front 29

The autonomic systems go to the

Back 29

cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and glands

Front 30

The endocrine system will release hormones to the bloodstream in a _____ manner

Back 30

ductless

Front 31

The endocrine system has a ____ response, but the effects are much _______ lasting

Back 31

The endrocrine system has a slow response but the effects are much longer lasting

Front 32

Does the endocrine system maintain direct contact with the affected cells?

Back 32

no

Front 33

What is defines as a combination of both nervous and endocrine system

Back 33

neuroendocrine

Front 34

The neuroendocrine system has specialized neurons that release chemicals that travel through the vascular system and interact with target tissue. they are released just like a neurotransmitter, bind like a neurotransmitter, but might not have an immediate effect

Back 34

just info

Front 35

What is not only a neurotransmitter, but also a neurosecretion?

Back 35

Epinephrine

Front 36

Who was the father of endocrinology?

Back 36

Bertold

Front 37

What experiment did bertold perform to study male behavior

Back 37

1. Castrated roosters failed to develop normal size combs and wattles (would be reduced in size and turn pink instead of normal red) along with a failure to exhibit normal male behavior. Would be docile, not as territorial or aggressive.

2. Removed testes and observed a decrease in aggression

3. Re-implanted testes and noted a return of the traits and characteristics, wattles and combs were larger and darker red. Aggression returned and normal behavior returned.

Front 38

Bertold also found that he didn't have to implant both testes into the rooster. If he implanted just one then the testicle grew significantly larger than if there were two testes. This happens to compensate for the loss of the other testicle. The one testicle produced enough for the two that were removed. What is this called?

Back 38

Compensatory Hypertrophy

Front 39

Who was the first to describe diabetes mellitus by removal of the pancreas?

Back 39

Von Mering and Minkowski

Diabetes was usually a death sentence. They worked on dogs, removed their pancreas and the dogs developed the signes and symptoms of type 1 diabetes

Front 40

What are the common signs and symptoms of Diabetes Mellitus?

Back 40

Frequent urination

feeling thirsty (Polydipsia)

fatigue

Hunger

Front 41

What did Banting and Best discover?

Back 41

They discovered that insulin was produced in the cell of the pancreas and named it islutin

Front 42

What is the definition of homeostasis?

Back 42

The tendency for physiologic systems to maintain consistent internal environments.

Front 43

Equilibrium is maintained through ________ _______ _______

Back 43

negative feedback mechanisms

Front 44

Small fluctuations, such as temperature fluctuations, are the result of _____ _____

Back 44

negative feedback

Front 45

An increase in one hormone will lead to a _____ in another hormone produced

Back 45

decrease

Front 46

Fill in this negative feed back loop chart

Back 46

Front 47

Which feedback loop has the greatest impactonthe feedback loop?

Back 47

Long feedback loop Thyroxine T3, T4

Front 48

Long feedback loop: Thyroxin (effector hormone) will have a ______ effect at the hypothalamus by decreasing additional production of TRh

Back 48

Significant

Front 49

Short feedback loop: TSH secreted from the anterior pituitary gland will have a _____ greatest at the hypothalamus by decreasing additional production of TRH

Back 49

Second

Front 50

Which part of the feedback loop has the smalles impact on the Feedback loop?

Back 50

Very short feedback loop.

Front 51

Very short feedback loop: TRH secreted from the hypothalamus will have the _______effect at the hypothalamus by decreasing the additional production of additional TRH

Back 51

least

Front 52

Does positive feedback happen more or less frequently when compared to negative feedback

Back 52

less frequently

Front 53

What causes positive feedback?

Back 53

it results when an initial trigger significantly increases the production of a hormone. The production continues until the initial trigger is eliminated

Front 54

What are two major examples of positive feedback

Back 54

i. Increase in cortisol production leads to an Increase in oxytocin production hormone release to increase in uterine contraction followed by infant delivery

ii. Clotting- cut ourselves, initial stimulus, we initiate a clotting response until we eliminate the bleeding

Front 55

Back 55

Front 56

Back 56

Front 57

Oxytocin will continue to increase until the baby is delivered followed by a decrease in release. Oxytocin can continue to be released until most of the milk has been depleted. T/F

Back 57

True

Front 58

What is a chemical structure on thesurface of a cell or inside a cellthat binds the hormone to initiate some change within the cell i.e. cellexcitation via depolarization (i.e. opening of ion channels followed by localdepolarization), activation of intracellular pathway and/or protein synthesisvia transcription and translation (i.e. anabolic steroids)

Back 58

Receptor

Front 59

Creatine Monohydrate has two main mechanisms of action. What are they?

Back 59

1. Keeps phosphates bound in muscle tissue. Shuttles creatine into the muscle cells which keeps the phosphates available to bind to AMP and ADP to make ATP

2. Serves as an osmotic agent

Front 60

There are two types of receptors. What are they?

Back 60

steroid receptors

protein receptros

Front 61

What are some characteristics of steroid receptors?

Back 61

1. Intracellular/do not bind to the cell membrane

2. located within the cell and interact with hydrophobic structures/cytoplasmic receptors

3. Steroid analogs can pass through the cell membrane and interact with intracellular receptors inside the cell.

4. Steroids are made from cholesterol

Front 62

Steroids cannot easily make it through the cell membrane. How do they get through?

Back 62

Cholesterol makes up 13% of all cell membranes which provides fluidity in the cell membrane. The function of cholesterol in the cell membrane is to push the phosphate heads apart which allows for the steroids to travel to the inside where it is hydrophobic, just like steroids, so they feel comfortable there.

Front 63

Where are protein receptors located?

Back 63

on the cell surface

Front 64

What do protein receptors that are located on the cell surface interact with?

Back 64

hydrophilic receptors

Front 65

What is released form nerve cells and is a short lasting signal that is transmitted to a local area via an electrical impulse. They are chemical messengers that bridge the synapse

Back 65

Neurotransmitters

Front 66

What is an example of a neurotransmitter

Back 66

epinephrine and norepinephrine

Front 67

How does epinephrine work?

Back 67

epinephrine comes into the cell, activates adenycl cyclase and then converts ATP into CAMP (secondary messenger), then opens up an ion channel to allow sodium to come into the cell.

Front 68

Neurotransmitters work via a second messenger and then are further broken down locally. what is the second messenger and what breaks it down?

Back 68

second messenger: cCAMP

broken down by PDE (Phosphodiesterase)

Front 69

What is a long lasting impulse which is produced by the hypothalamus/pituitary gland locally and at distant sites?

Back 69

neurosecretion

Note: These are released by a cell that looks like a nerve, but has an effect like a hormone

Front 70

What are produced by glands and have longer lasting effects; effects can be observed at tissues located far away.

Example: Epinephrine - released by the adrenal medulla into the blood stream to travel to all parts of the body for the fight or flight response

Back 70

hormones

Front 71

What is defined as the amount of time it takes to clear the hormone out of the blood stream and the effectiveness of the hormone?

Back 71

half life

Front 72

Do larger molecules or smaller molecules have a longer half life?

Back 72

larger

Front 73

What organs are hormones cleared by?

Back 73

The liver, some by the kidneys

Front 74

What are 8 physiological roles of hormones

Back 74

1. Affect cell synthesis and secretion

2. Affects Metabolism (both anabolic and catabolic metabolic processes)

3. Affects muscle function

4. Controls reproduction

5. Controls Cell growth

6. Affects the movement of cations (Na+, K+, and Ca+)

7. Play part on effectiveness of other hormones

8. Important in normal animal behavior.

Front 75

What is an example of how hormones affect cell synthesis and secretion?

Back 75

Increase in epithelial cell production and increase in milk production in the mammary glands

Front 76

What are the five main hormones of growth?

Back 76

insulin

thyroid

testosterone

HGH

IGF

Front 77

Hormones affect muscle function. An example is when a person is hypocalcemic they maintain low levels of Ca++ in their serum. Explain this.

Back 77

Too little calcium, we’ll go up to the threshold (0). If we get closer to that then it is an unstable membrane which can lead to arrhythmia or palpitations. Too much extracellular calcium is going to cause instability

Calcium has to be in a narrow range to maintain proper cardiac muscle function.

Every roid step in the clotting cascade requires Ca++ as a coenzyme, therefore, decreased serum Ca++ leads to instability

Front 78

What two hormones are important in normal animal behavior?

Back 78

testosterone and estrogen

Front 79

What are two modified amino acids and what does that mean?

Back 79

Tyrosine and Tryptophan.

They will serve as the initial building block for some hormones. ie: Tyrosine can be modified to make thyroid hormone

Front 80

What are the 4 different classifications of hormones?

Back 80

modified amino acids
peptides/proteins
glycoproteins
steroid hormones

Front 81

Whenwe add two peptides together we remove water via a ________ or _________ ________

Back 81

Whenwe add two peptides together we remove water via a condensationor dehydration synthesis

Front 82

by breaking the peptide bond apart we will undergo a _______ reaction.

Back 82

hydrolysis

Front 83

How many amino acids do each have:

Peptide

Polypeptide

Proteins

Back 83

Peptide:< 10 amino acids

Polypeptide:10 – 50 amino acids

Proteins:> 50 amino acids

Front 84

Glycoproteins are proteins with carbohydrates attachment. what are three examples?

Back 84

FSH, TSH, HCG

Front 85

Glycoproteins have an alpha and beta subunite. What do they do?

Back 85

Beta subunit is for specificity

alpha subunit is just consistent amongst all four hormones.

Front 86

Which hormones derive their structure form the cholesterol backbone?

Back 86

steroid hormones

Front 87

What is P450 Scc?

Back 87

cytokine cleavage

Front 88

If we remove the sidechain of cholesterol we will end up with?

Back 88

pregnenolone

Front 89

Cholesterol in the body accumulates in two different ways. What are they?

Back 89

through the diet

through liver production (serum) - this is a genetically predetermined quantity that dictates the production by the liver. More important than the diet

Front 90

what is a drug that helps to decrease the absorption of cholesterol through the gut lining.

Back 90

zetia

Front 91

what inhibit an enzyme in the liver called Hmg CoA reductase which allows us to make cholesterol from fatty acids? What is the problem with them?

Back 91

Statins.

The problem is that they increase the chance of rhabdomyolysis since were significantly increasing the amount of cholesterol in the cell membrane

Front 92

What drug pulls bad cholesterol out of the blood stream?

Back 92

repatha

Front 93

Serum cholesterol is carried in the blood in two distinct structures. what are they and define them.

Back 93

High Density Lipoprotein (HDL): Good cholesterol which has an increased amount of protein surrounding the cholesterol molecule. More protein/less fats

Low density Lipoprotein (LDL)- bad cholesterol which has a decreased amount of protein surrounding the cholesterol. LDL density: More cholesterol/less protein

Front 94

what is the first structural modification to create a steroid hormone?

Back 94

Cholesterol

Front 95

Name two steroid characteristics

Back 95

they are fat soluble, but not water soluble

circulatory concentration in ng/dL

Front 96

CIs cholesterol the initial cause of development of cardiovascular disease?

Back 96

No, it is an innocent bystander. It is involved in the healing process after. It is not the initial cause

Front 97

What are two main causes of endothelial damage?

Back 97

Increase in blood pressure

Increase in endothelial inflammation from free radicals from the sugar that is being consumed

Front 98

mmodified fatty acids: eicosanoids- arise from ______ acid and from the phospholipid bilayer

Back 98

arachidonic acid

Front 99

Explain the arachidonic acid pathways

Back 99

the phospholipid bilayer uses phospholipase A2 to produce Arachidonic acid. From there 1 of three pathways are possible.

1. Arachidonic acid using COX to create prostalandin.

- prostaglandins are local tissue hormones. Examples include PGE, PGA, PGF2alpha, They decrease in the size and function of the corpus luteum. possible correlation to menstrual cycles, incolced in smooth muscle contraction. (sidenote cox inhibitors will inhibit the formation of cyclooxygenase (COX) to produce prostaglandin

2. Arachidonic acid using LOX to create Leukotriens (aka: slow reacting substances of anaphylaxis)

- leukotrienes are produced by WBC's

- important in the development of asthma, allergies, and anyphylaxis (about 1000 times more potent than histimine)

3. Arachidonic acid uses 12-lipoxygenase to make HETE ( class of eicosanoids - inflammatory agentfound in metabolic syndrome, alzheimers, cancer, and general inflammation

Front 100

also involved in the arachidonic acid pathway Peroxidase can be split three ways into prastaglandins, prostacyclins and thromboxanes.explain what these do

Back 100

prostaglandin- involved in smooth muscle contraction

thromboxane A2 is produced by damaged endothelium. we see dynamic constriction of the vessel wall. Significantly increases platelet aggregation- platelet clotting

prostacyclins- produced by healthy endothelium. They cause vasodilation which decreases blood pressure and they decrease platelet aggregation so we don't have clotting occur where it shouldn't

Front 101

histamine is secreted by both mast cells and basophils. What happens during an anaphylactic reaction?

Back 101

mast cells and basophils release histimine and serotonin to increase capillary permeability which will increase inflammation

Front 102

what happens during an anaphylactic reaction?

Back 102

We could see massive swelling in this region, decrease in the ability to breathe from a narrowing or restricted passageway- Third spacing- if we release massive amounts of materials that cause increase in capillary permeability. The heart continues to pump blood pushing the fluid out of the vessels into interstitial tissue space causes: hypovolemic shock- a decrease in the volume of blood- death

Front 103

What determines the half life of a hormone?

Back 103

Their size. the bigger the molecule is the longer the half life.

GNRH this hormone is 10 amino acids long andhas a half life of 7 minutes in the blood stream FSH- this hormone is 540 amino acids and hasa half life of 2.5 hours

Front 104

epinephrine can be broken down locally and released into the bloodstream by?

Back 104

Monoamine oxidase in the blood stream. (MAO)

Front 105

MAO inhibitors prevent the breakdown of the monoamines in the blood stream. Why do we need them ?

Back 105

b/c all of the monoamines are feel good hormones. Their function is to increase the level of monoamines in the blood stream to prevent the sensation of depression

Front 106

Norepinephrine is released at synapse, has local effects and is broken down by ?

Back 106

COMT (catechol-o-methyl transferase

Front 107

For small molecules , one pass through the liver will alter the molecule by what percent???

Back 107

70%

Front 108

Are protein hormones hydrophillic or hydrophobic

Back 108

hydrophiilic

Front 109

protein hormones are hydrophilic therefore they bind to receptors where? Do they pass through the cell membrane

Back 109

they bind to the receptors in the cell membrane to create or cause their effect. they don't pass through the cell membrane because they're water soluble and can't pass through the lipid tails

Front 110

the mechanism of action requires a protein receptor on the cell ____-

Back 110

surface

peripheral cell proteins are on the inside of the cell surface not the outside of the cell surface

Front 111

lipid explain the mechanism of action of the lipid hormone/steroid hormone

Back 111

Steroidhormones travel through the cell membrane by binding to the steroid horomonereceptor complex. The steroid hormone receptor complex goes into the nucleus tobind to a segment of the dna called a HRE Hormone Response Element.. HRE thenactivates transcription and translation within that cell

i. They are soluble in fats (hydrophobic), thus, theycan travel through the cell membrane. Onceinside the cell they can bind to their target receptor.ii. Transport through the membrane is made possiblesecondary to the cholesterol in the membrane which separates the phospholipidmolecules. The membrane cholesterolmakes up 13% of the total membrane mass and increases fluidity of the cellmembrane and solubility/easier transport for lipid like molecules

Front 112

what has a long half life secondary to the sugar attached which make them more difficult to break down?

Back 112

glycoproteins

Front 113

Definition: These hormones are made up of amino acids that are bound to a peptide chain one at a time, beginning from the amino terminal to the carboxyl end

Back 113

Proteinaceous Hormones

Front 114

definition:

The pre-signal peptide is cleaved in the RER. This molecule has the signal peptide still attached (once we've cleaved off the signal peptide the _________ is now the prohormone_

Back 114

Pre-prohormone

Front 115

Definition:

The inactive hormone is further modified somewhere around the golgi apparatus

Back 115

prohormone

Front 116

Definition:

This hormone will be released via exocytosis. Not 100% of the pre-pro hormones become these type of hormones

Back 116

Active hormones

Front 117

Explain the 9 steps of protein synthesis

Back 117

1. mRNA synthesized in the nucleus via transcription

2. mRNA travels out through the nuclear pores into the cytoplasm and binds to a ribosome

3. Peptide chain elongation by peptide bond formation until a stop codon is reached. The codon will be paired with itsanti-codon. This results secondary to aminoacyl tRNA synthase.New amino acids will be bound to the growing amino acid chain via peptidyl transferase.

4.The signal peptide within the cytoplasm binds to the signal recognition particle (SRP) on the amino terminal of the growing peptide molecule.

5. The SRP will only facilitate guiding the protein to the endoplasmic reticulum where it will bind to a receptor/channel on the Rough ER called a translocon. Thus,the developing protein into the RER. Here is where we have the pro-hormone

6. The protein continues to get longer until we reach a chain terminating sequence. The protein can serve many different functions at this point. Let’s consider the product another hormone.

7. The molecule with its signal peptide still attached is a pre-cursor hormone --> pre-prohormone. Eventually the signal peptide can be cleaved with signal peptidase --> now we have a prohormone. The prohormone will now be bud off into a transport vesicle and head to the Golgi apparatus. Enzymes present in the vesicles will continue to digest the molecule into an active hormone.

8.In the Golgi, N-glycosylation and disulfide bond formation will occur.

9.Hormones are packaged by the Golgi apparatus into secretary vesicles in their active form to be exocytosed from the cell

Front 118

Insulin is a great example- entire structure of a prohormone looks like the proinsulin, then when they cleave off the C peptide the insulin is left. Insulin is the active hormone. Proinsulin is the inactive hormone.

Back 118

Front 119

Two properties of steroids.
1. absorbed through the ____
Hard on the _____

Back 119

absorbed through the gut

hard on the liver

Front 120

What are the oral anabolic steroids vs. injectable steroids impact on liver function

Back 120

Oral anabolic: hard on the liver. Will travel through liver quickly because they’re absorbed through the gut. Broken down in a faster rate. Hard on liver/less efficacy or activity

Injectable steroids: not as hard on liver/last longer in the blood stream.

Front 121

all steroid hormones are derived from _____

Back 121

cholesterol

Front 122

Which carbon does most enzyme activity occur on cholesterol?

Back 122

Carbon 17

Front 123

Explain steroid hormone synthesis

Back 123

a. Synthesis in the smooth endoplasmic reticulum

Composed from cholesterol

Travels in the blood via apo lipil proteins (Apolipil protein which carries cholesterol esters, triacylglycerides)

b. Cell membrane receptors for HDL’s and LDL’s

c. Pregnenolone synthesis from cholesterol

d.Pregnenolone converted to progesterone within the smooth endoplasmic reticulum

e. Note the way we refer to the carbons in the pregnenolone molecule

Front 124

Explain the steroid pathway

Back 124

1. LDL molecule binds to the LDL receptor located on the outer membrane of the cell. Binding causes the entire complex to be endocytosed into the cell.

2. The endocytosed complex will bind with the lysosome inside the cell and be digested into its respective parts (apolipoproteins, cholesterol, and protein)

3. LDL receptors are reused/reconstituted/ and re-expressed on the cell surface

4. Apolipoproteins are broken down into simple amino acids and used however the body sees fit

5. The fatty acids and cholesterol will be further processed by the mitochondria. Cholesterol will be exposed to the enzyme cholesterol desmolase which will cleave the side chain. Side chain removal will cause its transformation into pregnenolone.

6. Pregnenolone will travel from the mitochondria,to the smooth ER into the Golgi. The golgi will convert pregnenolone into progesterone. And then it will be exocytosed outside of the cell

Front 125

protein hormones go through the _____ ______ and steroid hormones go through the ________ (hint: parts of the cell)

Back 125

Protein hormones go through the Endoplasmic Reticulum

Steroid hormones go through the mitochondria (remember this b/c it is the power house of the cell)

Front 126

would women or men see more significant gains if they take anabolic steroids?

Back 126

women because they are more sensitive to testosterone.

Front 127

what are the irreversible changes women can have if they take anabolic steroids?

Back 127

body hair, clitoris enlargement

Front 128

What drug is used initially as an aromatase inhibitor for post menopausal women and breast cancer?

Back 128

arimidex

Front 129

what is another aromatase inhibitor besides arimidex?

Back 129

Femara

Front 130

Clomid is used in women fertility what does it do?

Back 130

Inhibits the estrogen receptors in the hypothalamus. Which increases FSH, serves as a fertility drug to increase the number of folliclesovulated to give the women a chance for a viable pregnancy

Front 131

What does clomid do to males that take anabolic steroids and have low testosterone levels?

Back 131

Blocks estrogen receptors in the hypothalamus now the hypothalamus doesn’t see any estrogen so it allows the pathway to jumpstart the testosterone and make sperm again

Front 132

Do steroid and protein hormones travel through the cell membrane and bind to an intracellular receptor

Back 132

steroid

Front 133

Do protein hormones or steroid hormones bind to a cell membrane protein receptor?

Back 133

protein

Front 134

Protein hormones all bind to a cell membrane protein receptor with one exception which can travel through the cell membrane and bind to an intracellular receptor. what is it?

Back 134

thyroid hormone

Front 135

hormonal binding to the cell membrane will elicit one or more of the following actions:

Back 135

1. Activation of G proteins

2. Initiation of tyrosine kinase pathways

3. Open zion channels

4. Other unknown activities: meiosis,transcription, translation

Front 136

what is a specific enzyme that dephosphorylates a protein?

Back 136

phosphorylase

Front 137

Activation or deactivation of phosphorylase can be caused by either.....

Back 137

phosphorylation or dephosphorylation

Front 138

what is a family of enzymes that phosphorylates a protein by adding a phosphate?

Back 138

kinases

Front 139

What typically phosphorylates a protein by adding a phosphate?

Back 139

tyrosine kinase

Front 140

what typically phosphrylates serin/theronine amino acids in the protein chain

Back 140

serine/threonine kinase

Front 141

what is A protein composed of three subunits that break apart when activated to initiate reactions within the cell

Back 141

G- protein

Front 142

What are the three types of G-proteins and what do they do?

Back 142

-Gs-protein: Stimulatory which activated the cAMP/PKA system

-Gi-protein: Inhibitory which inhibits the cAMP/PKA system

-Gy- protein-activates the PKC system (protein kinase C pathway)

Front 143

explain the protein hormone synthesis pathway (stimulatory pathway)

Back 143

1. Catecholamine binds to a beta-adrenergic receptor and initiates a down stream pathway

2. Release of GDP from the attached α-subunit (when hormone binds the alpha subunit loses its affinity for GDP) GDP comes off so…

3. Binding of GTP and release of α-subunit from G-protein (this is the step the G protein is now active, GTP leaves with the alpha subunit in tact)

4. Inactive adenylate cyclase makes active adenylate cyclase

5. Adenylate cyclase converts ATP into cCAMP (A 2ndmessenger)

6. cAMP will be broken down into 5’AMP byphosphodiesterase (PDE)

7. Inactive PKA is converted to active PKA

8. Phosphorylation of serine/tyrosine residues to activate the enzyme glycogen phosphorlase. This enzyme will enable glycogen to be transformed into glucose, thus, allowing an increase in blood glucose.

Front 144

The guanylate cyclase system is an enzyme-linked receptor system. cGMP will act as a second messenger initiating intracellular activity. The downstream pathway might result in phosphorylation/dephosphorylation of a protein. What is an example of guanylate cyclase system?

Back 144

activation of nitric oxide within arterioles

Front 145

Explain the nitric oxide pathway

Back 145

This processis initiated when endothelial cells which line the inside of the vascularsystem are exposed to stress. Stress can result from tension and/or shearing of the endothelial layer.

1. Endothelial stress/shearing release of eNOS(endothelial nitric oxide synthase)

2. Enos converts Arginine or citrulline NO(nitric oxide) which is made at the endothelial cell. Will have its effect onthe muscle cell wall of the vessels

3. Activation of Guanylyl cyclase

4. GTP cGMP

5. cGMP is a 2nd messenger, thus, acascade of results will follow ( GMP-PDE could convert CGMP to 5’ GMP)

a. Smooth muscle dilation ( to take the stress offof the endothelial cells)

b. Hypotension

c. Decreased stress on the cell

Front 146

What will nitric oxide supplementation do

Back 146

increase blood flow to the muscles, increased exchange of nutrients and wastes and alsohas potential positive cardiovascular effects by decreasing blood pressure.

Front 147

Artherosclerosis is the deposition of fat. it is a hardening of the arteries. Will we see an increase or decrease in blood pressure and blood volume

Back 147

increase

Front 148

there are two kinds of plaque that causes heart attacks. What are they?

Back 148

hard- from calcium depositions, stable plaques, long standing

soft- of more concern than hard plaques, unstable, typically leads to an MI

Front 149

What are macrophages that gobble up cholesterol and gest so full they look like soapy suds. It spews this like a volcano and binds to clotting factors. Leads to most MI's

Back 149

foam cell

Front 150

A heart muscle is the only muscle that is aerobic. 75% of people that have a heart attack and survive will have muscle tissue damage. How do you fix that?

Back 150

beta blockers causes vasodilation of the blood vessels. Slows down heart rate, slows down force ofcontractions, gives the heart a little chance to rest.

Front 151

Cardiovascular disease andsupplementation with beta blockers and Ca++ channel blockers. Any hypoxic tissue will secrete ________ which will resultin increased vascular tissue which may increase cardiac function demand. The effects of angiogenin won’t be observedin tissue that has died.

Back 151

angiogenin

Front 152

What is a major player involved in maintaining both a resting membrane potential and skeletal muscle contraction?

Back 152

Calcium

Front 153

Explain the IP3 Pathway

Back 153

1. Hormone will bind to the receptor protein

2. The G-protein binding will cause a confirmation change, thus, the GDP will disassociate from the α subunit followed by GTP binding to the α subunit initiating a confirmation change. Next the α subunit-GTP complex will disassociate from the G-protein.

3. The α subunit-GTP complex will bind with phospholipase C (PLC)

4. Activation of PLC will cause phosphotidyl inositol biphosphate (PIP2) to split into 2 molecules (IP3 andDAG). PIP2 is part of the plasmamembrane. ***NOTE*** IP3 and Ca++interact with different Ca++ ion channels via different mechanisms

5. IP3 will travel to the sarcoplasmic reticulum(SR) and bind to a IP3 receptor on the Ca++ channel in the phospholipidbilayer. Binding to the receptor willcause an efflux of Ca++ from inside the SR into the cytoplasm outside the SR.

Efflux will have three different fates

1. Ca++ may bind to calmodulin (has 4 binding sites) to initiate smooth musclecontraction. a. Contraction may result in cardiac (Nernstpotential is ~ -90mV) or smooth muscle (Nernst potential ~ - mV). Thus, there is more electrical potential found outside cardiac muscle vs smooth muscle. Ca++ blockers will have more of an affect on cardiac when compared to smooth muscles resulting from the difference in electrical potential.

2. Ca++ may bind to a Ca++ regulated ion gate on the SR, thus, allowing a greater efflux of Ca++ to enter the cytoplasm from inside the SR

3. Ca++ may also bind to the Ca++ ion channellocated on the cells outer membrane. The binding here will allow Ca++ to enter the cytoplasm from outside the cell wherethe [Ca++] is at its greatest.

4. Diacyl glycerol (DAG)

a. DAGwill activate protein kinase C (PKC). This Ca++ dependent. If we don’t have Ca++ available in the cytoplasm this isn’t a good pathway.

b. PKC will allow for phosphorylation of serine and threonine residues, thus, allowing for possible gene transcription/translation

c. Arachidonic acid is created which can make prostaglandins

Front 154

Albumins are responsible for _____ or ____ pressure

Back 154

oncotic or osmotic pressure

Front 155

what acts as clotting factors?

Back 155

fibrins

Front 156

What is the most commonly prescribed anti-clotting medicaiton post MI event?

Back 156

plavix

Front 157

_______ proteins carry various molecules in the blood. For example a steroid molecules can be carried in the blood once bound to a globular hydrophilic molecule. The hydrophobic protein carries the hydrophobic steroid.

Back 157

globular

Front 158

many globular proteins are specific to specific hormones while others are not. examples are?

Back 158

sex hormone: sex hormone/steroid binding globulin

corticosteroid: corticosteroid binding globulin

thyroid: thyroid hormone binding globuliin/tranthiertan

steroid: steroid binding globulin

Front 159

a small proportion of proteins travel through the blood unbound. what is an example?

Back 159

hydrophobic aldosterone

40% travels bound to globular proteins

60% Travelsfree

Front 160

What are three different types of carrier proteins?

Back 160

non specific- Carry many different types of hormones. Protein carrier molecules found in high concentration in the blood, therefore, carrie sa significant percentage of hormones within the blood
specific: Has binding sites for specific hormones and will carry the hormone through the blood
unbound: A small amount of hormone types are carried through the blood unbound

Front 161

Explain hormone movement into the target cell

Back 161

a. Binding proteins release the hormone at the target cell and the steroid diffuses into the target cells cytoplasm

b. Receptors are located within the nucleus orcytoplasm of the target cell

c. Binding is to specific receptors

d. Steroid hormone receptors belong to a super family of nuclear and DNA binding proteins that act as transcriptionfactors that are only active in the receptor protein/steroid hormone state.

Front 162

Explain hormone activation of a receptor

Back 162

a. Hormone enters the cytoplasm possibly via diffusion and the hormone will bind to a nuclear receptor. The hormone/receptor complex will bind to the Hormone Response Element (HRE) and initiation of transcription will take place.

i. Specific Hormone Response Elements

(1) ERE- Estrogen response elements

(2) ARE- Androgen response elements

Front 163

what is the master gland of the master gland- directly control release of hormones from the anterior pituitary (master gland).

Back 163

hypothalamus

Front 164

The hypothalamus is located where?

Back 164

below the thalamus and is an extension of the brainstem. Hypothalamic tissue surrounds the 3rd ventricle and it creates a bowl in which the 3rd ventricle sits in which is filled with CSF. (CSF will provide feedback to nucleus)

Front 165

The hypothalamus contains a large quantity of nerve cell bodies called _____ which are int he walls of the hypothalamus and have _____ ______ which travel to either the ____ ____ and terminate (release neurosecretions. The ___ ______ have axons which travel down and release their secretions into the ____ _____ artery located at the posterior pituitary proper

Back 165

The hypothalamus contains a large quantityof nerve cell bodies called nuclei. The nuclei are in the walls of the hypothalamus and have short axons which travel to either the median eminence and terminate (release neurosecretions). The long nuclei have axons which travel down and release their secretions into theinferior hypophyseal artery located at theposterior pituitary proper.

Front 166

The median eminence is a highly vascularized structure and comprises what?

Back 166

the floor of the 3rd ventricle and the base of the infundibulum

Front 167

label this

Back 167

Front 168

The superior and inferior hypophyseal arteries both receive blood from the ____ ______ ____-

Back 168

middle cerebral artery

Front 169

What is the most common vessel involved in a stroke? What are the two most commonly affected regions?

Back 169

middle cerebral artery

pre-central gyrus and post-central gyrus are the 2 most commonly affected regions

Front 170

A stroke could result in necrosis to the ___ ____ which would result in hormone disturbances

Back 170

Pituitary region

Front 171

hypothalamic hypophyseal portal system travels from the ____ ______ to the ____ ______ ____

Back 171

hypothalamic hypophyseal portal systems travels from the median eminence to the anterior pituitary gland,

Front 172

What is a hormone that is bound to another molecule,which comes from the hypothalamus and is released from either the anterior orposterior pituitary gland. The bound complex will travel down the axon together. As they are released into the blood stream the complex will breakapart. There is currently no known function of the binding molecule once it separates from the active hormone in the bloodstream.

Back 172

Neurophysins

Front 173

1. Hypothalamic neurons synthesize and secrete neurohormones or _______

Back 173

neurosecretions

Front 174

Hypothalamic-hypophyseal system contains the

Back 174

a. Posterior pituitary- contain magnocellular cells

i. Contain 2 main nuclei that contain magnocellular cells (large cells with long, vericose axons Supra optic nucleus Paraventriculear nucleus

b. Anterior pituitary –

i. Main nuclei arise from the parvocellular cells in the hypothalamus.

Front 175

list the Hypothalamus hormones: (if you see RH or IH you know it is from the hypothalamus

Back 175

TRH- Thyrotropin Releasing Hormone

GnRH- GonadotropinRelease Hormone

GHRIH- -Growth hormone releasing inhibiting hormone

GHRH- GrowthHormone Releasing Hormone

CRH-CorticotropinReleasing Hormone

PRIH- ProlactinReleasing Hormone (

Front 176

What are the functions of TRH- Thyrotropin Releasing Hormone

Back 176

stimulate synthesis and release of TSH

Stimulates the release of prolactin

Front 177

What are the initiating factors of TRH- Thyrotropin Releasing Hormone

Back 177

i. Release when exposed to cold environments --> TRH stimulation --> TSH -->increased metabolism --> increased metabolic rate through the downstream pathway of the thyroidsystem

ii. Release in response to a decrease in circulating thyroid hormone

Front 178

i. TRH is important in the proper _____ function

Back 178

cerebellum

Front 179

GnRH Gonadotropin release hormone function:

Back 179

Relase of FSH and LH from the anterior pituitary gland

Front 180

GnRH Gonadotropin release initiating factors:

Back 180

Low levels of circulating estrogen, testosterone and progestins

Low frequency pulses of GNRH will cause FSH release: LH produces testosterone FSH- produces sperm

Front 181

Exogenous testosterone use will inhibit the hypothalamic-hypophyseal-gonadal axis (HHG). High levels of testosterone will cause a decrease in____, decrease in production of ____ and decrease of production in ____

Back 181

decreasein GnRH, decrease in production of sperm and decrease of production in testosterone.

Front 182

What does GHRIH (AKA: GHIH- Growth hormone releasing inhibiting hormone) doin the thyroid.

Back 182

i. decrease release in calcitonin (tones down blood calcium). A decreased release results in Ca2+ removal from bones into the blood thus a decrease in bone density is seen. ( will be excreted by the kidneys)

Front 183

What does GHRIH (AKA: GHIH- Growth hormone releasing inhibiting hormone) do in the pancreas.

Back 183

(1) Inhibits insulin and glucagon production Glucagon’s job is to put sugar in the blood, insulin pulls sugar from the blood and puts it in the cell. Samatostatin inhibits both processes

Front 184

What does GHRIH(AKA: GHIH- Growth hormone releasing inhibiting hormone) do in the pituitary.

Back 184

(1) Inhibits growth hormone from the pituitary gland. Will inhibit at the anterior pituitary. It also inhibits the production of TSH from the anterior pituitary gland.

Front 185

What does GHRIH (AKA: GHIH- Growth hormone releasing inhibiting hormone) do in the Gi

Back 185

(1) Contributes to the balance observed between production/non-production of enzymes for digestion, which enables energy to be conserved.

(2) Inhibits secretions of all glands within the digestive system. Lumones is a generalized term for a hormone that will have aneffect on the GI system.

(3) You spend upwards of 40% of your metabolic requirements dealing with digestion on an average day

Front 186

What does GHRIH(AKA: GHIH- Growth hormone releasing inhibiting hormone) do in the Brain

Back 186

(1) It has a generalized sedative effect on the body which contributes to drowsiness

Front 187

What are the only true anabolic hormones?

Back 187

insulin

igf (insulin growth factor)

hgh (human growth hormone

thyroid hormone

testosterone

Front 188

What are the two main growth inhibiting hormones

Back 188

somatostatin and corticosteroids

Front 189

GHRH Growth Hormone Releasing Hormone function is

Back 189

Stimulates GH production in the anterior pituitary gland

Front 190

CRH - Corticotropin Releasing Hormone is formed/produced in the ?

Back 190

placenta

Crh production increases within the placenta as the baby becomes stressed. Causes an increase in the cortisol production within the baby. That is the initiating factor to cause oxytocin levels to increase.

Front 191

If a female in labor has pre-term labor contractions (Braxton Hickscontractions) or bleeding (placenta abruptio- the placenta has torn away from the endometrium) Treatment of choice is ________and probably bedrest. since it inhibits uterine contractions

Back 191

Progesterone

Front 192

PRIH –Prolactin Releasing Hormone is also called

Back 192

dopamine

Front 193

PRIH - functions to

Back 193

inhibit prolactin release

Front 194

opiates are also called

Back 194

endorphins/enkephalins

Front 195

Formation of opiates- all of the following are cleaved off of POMC:

these are neurohormones with endogenous analgesic effects. Called the Natural Opiates i.e endurance exercise will cause a surge of endorphins

Back 195

Endorphin and met-enkephalins,

Front 196

Formation of opiates- all of the following are cleaved off of POMC:

____ _____ ____ binding to receptors can lead to hyperpigmentation secondary to stimulation ofmelanocytes which will cause the skin to darken. This is a very common side effect observed inAddison’s disease

Back 196

Long term ACTH

Front 197

Opiates function:

Back 197

i. See an increase in GH and PRL (prolactin) release.

ii. In the brain the opiates have a synergistic affect by stimulating the release of epinephrine. Recall epinephrine is one of the feel good hormones.

iii. Hypothalamus: decrease in GnRH release is observed which will also lead to a decrease in LH/FSH. Long term elevation of opioids can lead to amenoria(sp?) in females.

Front 198

3 factors contribute to infertility in active women.

Back 198

1. Increased production of opioids

2. A decrease in fertility in women

3. Decrease in body fat

Front 199

- Why does a decreasein body fat cause problem with decrease in menstruation?

Back 199

Body fat is loaded with aromatase. Increase in body fat= increase in aromatase activity. Decrease in body fat decreases aromatase which converts testosterone into estrogen. If there is no estrogen women have problems with menstruation. If a woman decreases body fat that will cause a decrease in menstruation which will lead to a decrease in bone density. Estrogen is required to maintain bone density.

Front 200

What is the problem with post-menopausal women being given hormone replacement therapy (increasing levels of estrogen)

Back 200

- caused increase in breast cancer because they were feeding this problem. We stopped doing HRT in females, but now guys are getting high levels of testosterone because they have low testosterone and they’re developing prostate cancer.

Front 201

How do guys fix low testosterone?

Back 201

lose weight and body fat to increase testosterone naturally

Front 202

Back 202

Front 203

fill in blanks.

Is this negative or positive feedback most of the time?

Back 203

Front 204

Back 204

Front 205

What Arose from rathkes pouch during 1st trimester whichwas ectodermal invagination of the oral pharynx. 5 cells types, distinguished by size andshape of the secretory gland, staining characteristics and cell shape.

Back 205

Pituitary Gland

Front 206

What are the four types of things that arise from the anterior pituitary gland?

Back 206

Corticotrophs

Gonadotrophs

Thyroptrophs

Somatotrophs

Front 207

What is the corticotroph function? What does it release ?

Back 207

to stimulate the adrenal cortex.

Releases ACTH- Adrenocorticotropin, Beta-Lipotropin and MSH

Front 208

Cortisol has a Negative or Positive feedback loop at they hypothalamus and the anterio pituitary gland on ACTH?

Back 208

Negative

Front 209

Increased levels of cortisol down-regulates or up-regulates ACTH?

Back 209

Down regulates

Front 210

What are the six stimuli for ACTH release?

Back 210

1. Anxiety

2. Pyrogens - increased fever

3. Hypoglycemia

4. Pain

5. Circadian rhythms (cortisol, menstruation etc)

6. physical stress

Front 211

Increased levels of stress can lead to a condition known as what?

Back 211

Crooks Hyaline Change/Cushings Syndrome

Front 212

High levels of stress can do damage in three ways. what are they?

Back 212

1. increase release of sugars into the blood stream causing endothelial damage

2. coronary artery vasospasm

3. increase in blood pressure

Front 213

What do gonadotrophs secrete?

Back 213

gonadotropins: LH (Leutinizing hormone) and FSH (Follicle stimulating hormone)

Front 214

What tells the body to release LH/FSH?

Back 214

GNRH

Front 215

LH and FSH are produced in _____ ______: once every hour which may be different between males and females

Back 215

episodic bursts

Front 216

GnRH comes from the _________ (where in the brain)

Back 216

hypothalamus

Front 217

In males Inhibin is secreted from the ________ cells which are located in the tubule in the seasmen vesicle

Back 217

sustentacular

Front 218

Estradiol (estrogen) confers a negative feedbackresponse most of the time in females. However, during the ________surge there is a huge positive increase inestrogen which greatly increases in GnRH

Back 218

Ovulatory stage

GnRH,estrogen-->follicular cells -->increased GnRH -->increased FSH/LH -->increased estrogen

Front 219

What female cells produce inhibin on the female side?

Back 219

granulosa cells

Front 220

What inhibits production of sperm and tells FSH to shut down bypassing GNRH?

Back 220

Inhibin

Front 221

What secretion will increase the production of FSH?

Back 221

Activin

Front 222

What is the function of FSH in males?

Back 222

A. Stimulate the development and MATURATION OF SPERM

B. Involved in the production (STIMULATION) of ANDROGEN BINDING PROTEIN which helps keeps testosterone in the testes for proper sperm development.

Front 223

What is the function of FSH in females?

Back 223

A. Stimulates OVARIAN FOLLICULAR GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT.

B. Stimulates ESTROGEN SYNTHESIS synthesis and release from the follicular cells

Front 224

What is the function of LH in males

Back 224

A. Responsible for SECONDARY SEX CHARACTERISTICS (ANDROGENIC: FACIAL HAIR, ACNE, HAIR LOSS – ANABOLIC: MUSCLE GROWTH)

B. Responsible for most of the PRODUCTION OF TESTOSTERONE

Front 225

What is the function of LH in females

Back 225

A. Stimulates the CORPUS LUDEUM FORMATION

B. Stimulates maturation of the ovum for OVULATION.

Note:There is an LH surge 12-24 hours prior to ovulation, thus, it is called the ovulation hormone.

Front 226

What hormone do thyrotrphs produce?

Back 226

TSH

Front 227

Thyrotroph cells will ______. The receptors on the cell will require an antibodyto bind to it

Back 227

immunostatin

Front 228

What is the main function of TSH

Back 228

the synthesis and release of thyroid hormone stimulation

Front 229

TSH has increased synthesis of _________

Increased ____ transport into the follicular cells of the thyorid gland

Increased ____ of thyroglobulin

Increased exocytosis to ____ and ____

Back 229

TSH has increased synthesis of thyroglobulin

Increased iodide transport into the follicular cells of the thyorid gland

Increased endocytosis of thyroglobulin

Increased exocytosis to T3 and T4

Front 230

What is the precurser to the thyroid hormone?

Back 230

thyroglobulin

Front 231

What produces the growth hormone?

Back 231

Somatotrophs

Front 232

What hormone is regulated by GHRH from the hypothalamus?

Back 232

Growth hormone

Front 233

GRGH is increased by what?

Back 233

GHIH

Front 234

What stimulates GHRH

Back 234

process of fasting

exercise- weight training

increase in protein in the diet

physical stress

increase in carbohydrate consumption

Front 235

Explain what happens when GH acts on the liver

Back 235

There are many GH receptors on the liver. The liver will produce Insulin like growth factors/IGF’s in response to high HGH

- When GH binds to the receptors. IGF’s will stimulate bone growth, muscle growth,increase amino acid uptake and will exert a negative feedback on GNRH and GH production

Front 236

Serum [HGH] is pulsatile and hard to measure,thus, it is more common to see clinician’s measure _________

Back 236

somatomedians (AKA: IGF’s).

(IGF’s are in higher concentrations in the bloodstream, maintain a more regular release and have a longer half-life when compared to serum [HGH].)

Front 237

Dwarfism results from a ____ deficiency

Back 237

GH

Front 238

What congenital dwarfism will the patient have a lack of GH receptors, but will produce the proper amount of GM? Also the most common form of dwarfism.

Back 238

Laron's Dwarfism

Front 239

What congenital dwarfism will have a normal GH, but an inappropriate rise in IGF. This may result from a problem with GH receptors on the liver

Back 239

African Pigmy

Front 240

What type of congenital dwarfism stems from a gene deletion

Back 240

Hereditary

Front 241

What are the two ways to acquire dwarfism

Back 241

1. pituitary tumors which will squeeze out the somatotrophs

2. pituitary infection (a potential mechanism for this to happen is a sinus infection that could destroy the pituitary gland)

Front 242

What is the treatment for dwarfism

Back 242

using recombinant HGh

Front 243

What is a problem with supplementing with HGH

Back 243

HGH is species specific, thus,supplementation with GH from another species there would be very little response. Original treatment consisted of HGH harvesting from 120 cadavers over the course of a year to provide enough HGH to make a difference. The biggest side effect resulted from prion disease which resulted in death.

Front 244

What type of disease has an increase in GH prior to epiphyseal plate closure. Rapid growth with early epiphyseal plate fusion and occurs before epiphyseal plate fusion

Back 244

giantism

Front 245

What are the signs and symptoms for giantism?

Back 245

(1) Increase in skin thickness with (dermis and epidermis), deepening of the voice secondary to increasing length in vocal folds, overgrown skeleton, barrel chest, and many cardiovascular complications (because of an increase in glucose and fats in the blood)

Front 246

What is the treatment for Giantism?

Back 246

surgery, radiation, hormonal therapy

Front 247

What disease has an increase in GH production after the epiphyseal plate fusion. This can occur when the tumor develops after epiphyseal plate closure

Back 247

Acromegaly

Front 248

What are the signs and symptoms for Acromegaly?

Back 248

(1) Increase in skin thickness with (dermis and epidermis), deepening of the voice secondary to increasing length in vocalfolds, overgrown skeleton (long bone diameter increases), barrel chest,increase in muscularity, teeth are separated or lacking, size of tongue can increase, and many cardiovascular problems

Front 249

What is the treatment for Acromegaly?

Back 249

Surgery, radiation, hormone therapy

Front 250

What pituitary is the Arterial blood supply provided by the inferior hypophyseal artery. Hormones of the________ pituitary gland are produced in magnocellular cells of the hypothalamusand travel down the axon via axoplamic flow to the axon terminals located inthe median eminence.

Back 250

posterior pituitary

posterior

Front 251

What are the hormones of the posterior pituitary?

Back 251

oxytocin (hint to remember: company OP- oxytocin goes with posterior pituitary)

anti-diuretic hormone (ADH)

Front 252

Oxytocin is synthesized in the cells of the _______ nuclei in the hypothalamus

Back 252

paraventricular

Front 253

What is the function of Oxytocin?

Back 253

Involved in the milk let-down reflex- myoepithelial cells of the mammary gland

Will contract uterine contractions- contraction of the myometrium of the uterus

Front 254

Which hormone is aka: vasopressin and is synthesised in the supraoptic nuclei of the hypthalamus?

Back 254

Anti-diuretic hormone- ADH

Front 255

What is the funciton of ADH

Back 255

Retain fluids

vasoconstriction the blood vessels ie: raise blood pressure *** main function

Front 256

Both oxytocin and ADH are synthesised within the rough ER of the magnocellular cells of the hypothalamus. They are packed into secretory granules that migrate down the axon bound to neyrophysisns (pressophysin) from ADH and oxyphysin for oxytocin. ADH also has glycoproteins which are bound. Here the hormones are cleaved into their active form and stored for release when needed. There is no known function for either the neurophysins or the glycoprotein once released into the blood stream

Back 256

Both oxytocin and ADH are synthesised within the rough ER of the magnocellular cells of the hypothalamus. They are packed into secretory granules that migrate down the axon bound to _________ (pressophysin) from ADH and ______ for oxytocin. ADH also has glycoproteins which are bound. Here the hormones are cleaved into their active form and stored for release when needed. There is no known function for either the ____ or the _____ once released into the blood stream

Front 257

What is the half life of ADH?

Back 257

15-20 minutes

Front 258

ADH function includes osmoregulation. explain this

Back 258

Osmoreceptors (vasculosum osmoreceptors) which line the 3rd ventricle. These magnocellular cells sense changes in the osmolality of the extracellular fluid (Na+ content).

In the walls of third ventricle there are osmoreceptors known as the organum vasculosin, these cells monitor the osmolarity of the fluid in the third ventricle. Osmolarity increases in the third ventricle stimulating these osmoreceptors. They project their information to the neurons to cause the superoptic nuclei to release or produce of antidiuretic hormone

Front 259

ADH function is baroregulation. explain this

Back 259

a. Changes blood pressure, decrease in BP, lead to an increase in ADH production to conserve water and increase blood pressure.

Front 260

What stimulates ADH production?

Back 260

nausea and vomiting

Front 261

What inhibits ADH production

Back 261

Alcohol,caffeine, nicotine will inhibit the release of ADH

Front 262

What will cause devastating effects on the renal system?

Back 262

Malignant hypertension

If blood flow in kidneys is decreased you’re not clearingout the amount of urine you should be clearing which leads to high bloodpressure

Front 263

Adecreased production of ADH or a decrease in the sensitivity of ADH receptors within the kidneys will result in a tremendous loss of water. Patients can lose up to 25L of fluid per day. This leads to a significant increase of fluid loss. What disease results in this?

Back 263

diabetes insipidus

Front 264

What is the nephrogenic cause of diabetes insipidus? What is the Neurogenic cause?

Back 264

nephrogenic- receptor stops working normally

neurogenic: decrease production of ADH

Front 265

What syndrome most commonly results from a lung tumor(could also be from trauma) which will cause a large amount of ADH productionSeen most commonly with small cell carcinoma and mesyltheliomas. Can cause death. One symptom is cerebral edema and myoclonus(muscle spasms)

Back 265

Syndrome of inappropriate ADH production (SIADH)

Front 266

What is the half life of Oxytocin?

Back 266

3-5 minutes and then it is degraded by the liver

Front 267

Oxytocin is responsible for the milk let down reflex. Explain

Back 267

Afferent neurons in the nipples and the areolasynapse on the magnocellular cells of the paraventricular nucleus causing depolarization and the release of the synaptic granules containing oxytocin.

Front 268

Oxytocin is responsible for the uterine contraction and cervical distention during labor and parturition. Explain

Back 268

a. This is a positive feedback mechanism. This process is multi-hormonal. Stretching of the cervix and the myometrium releases oxytocin in normal labor. Once cortisol release from the placenta and/or the baby and an increase in [serum] will initiate this process. The uterine contractions stimulate afferent neurons in the wall of the uterus --> causing the release of oxytocin -->causing the myometrium to contract even more.

Front 269

What drug can be given to kick start or jump start labor after a stalled labor?

Back 269

pitocin

Front 270

What are the actions of oxytocin (supposedly won't be on the test.. but you never know)

Back 270

lactation

parturition

increase in release of sperm into seminal fluid

sperm movement

corpusluteum

Front 271

What causes decrease in function, pituitary tumors, hypothalamic tumors, infarction, vascular malformation secondary to a genetic condition.

Back 271

Hypopituitarism

Front 272

Hypopituitarism: What condition results from a complete loss of function from the anterior pituitary gland. Females will have amenhorrhea and males will have impotence. Both will also observe dysfunction in the other anterior pituitary hormones ie: no FSH/LH or TSH production. This condition may result in lethargy, stupor, and even death.

Back 272

Panhypopituitarism

Front 273

What is the treatment for panhypopituitarism?

Back 273

replace hormones that are no longer being made. Most important is ACTH, Cortisol is prescribed

Front 274

Hypopituitarism: What condition typically occurs at the hypothalamic pituitary axis. There is a loss of GnRH, thus, in females: amenorrhea, males, a decrease in secondary sex characteristics

Back 274

Isolated Gonadotropin deficiency

Front 275

What is the treatment for Isolated gonadotropin deficiency?

Back 275

GNRH supplementation

Front 276

Hypopituitarism:What condition is relatively uncommon, but the most common cause is Prednisone Use

Back 276

ACTH deficiency

Front 277

Hypopituitarism:What condition is observed secondary to post partum anterior pituitary necrosis. it is not uncommon to see a huge increase in the number of lactotrophs during pregnancy. This increase may create an environment in the anterior pituitary which is highly susceptible to injury.

*** TEST QUESTION

Back 277

Sheehan's disease

Front 278

What type of diseases typically arise from tumors and precocious puberty (tumors arise form gonadotrophs)

Back 278

Hyperpituitarism

Front 279

Hyperpituitarism: What is an ACTH secreting tumor. You will observe an increase in metabolism, redistribution of fat to the face (moonface) and to the back (buffalo hump) hyperpigmentation resulting from an increase in MSH production and possibly diabetes.

***** Know for test

Back 279

Cushings Disease

Front 280

Hyperpituitarism: What is the most common of all the pituitary tumors? It is 5x more common in females vs. males. Men will lactate if they have it. Hormonal abnormality with a loss of vision

Back 280

prolactin secreting tumor

Front 281

What 4 different target organs does the Growth hormone affect?

Back 281

Liver, bone, muscle, adipose tissue

Front 282

What will inhibit the GH Feedback mechanism?

Back 282

GHIH or somatostatin

Front 283

What is the most common cause of pituitary tumors?

Back 283

Lactotrophs

Front 284

What inhibits lactotrophs?

Back 284

secretion of dopamine

Front 285

What inhibits lactation?

Back 285

progesterone

Front 286

What will cause an increase production of milk glands during pregnancy?

Back 286

prolactin

Front 287

GH in pre-pubescent individuals will cause an increase in the cell size of bones and muscle AFTER or BEFORE epiphyseal plate fusion?

Back 287

after