Emotions Midterm 2

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William James

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James-Lange theory- That emotions involve distinct bodily reverberation detected by the autonomic nervous system and by neural signals from the workings of our muscles.

Wrote Principles of Psychology

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Autonomic nervous system

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Breaks up into Sympathetic and Parasympathetic systems.

Maintains inner environment of the body, to enable the individual's adaptive response to varying external environmental events, by controlling processes such as digestion, body fluids, blood flow, and temperature.

It is closely associated with various behaviors with direct relevance to emotion, including defensive behavior, sexual behavior, and aggression.

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Neural pathway

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Neural signals from the cortex communicate with the limbic system and the hypothalamus. These brain regions send signals through clusters of neurons of the autonomic nervous system to the hypothalamus, limbic system, and cortex.

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Parasympathetic nervous system

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Helps with restorative processes, reducing heart rate and blood pressure and increasing digestive processes.

Dilates certain arteries to facilitate blood flow. Increases blood flow to erogenous areas, so is essential for sexual response. Constricts pupil and bronchioles, and stimulates secretion of various fluids throughout the body, including digestive glands, salivation, and tears.

Incorporates the vagus nerve at the top of the spinal cord, and in the sacral region at the bottom of the spinal cord.

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Sympathetic nervous system

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Increases heart rate blood pressure, and cardiac output and shuts down digestive processes, to help the individual to engage in physically demanding actions.

Produces vasoconstriction in most veins and arteries.

Shuts down digestive processes.

associated with contractions in reproductive organs that are part of orgasm.

Associated with with contraction of piloerector muscles that help thermo-regulation.

Increases many processes that provide energy, like glycogenesis, the freeing of fatty acids in the blood stream.

Reduces activity of natural killer cells, which are involved in immune responses. This may account for chronic stress producing poor health outcomes.

Helps prepare body for flight or fight responses.

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Measuring autonomic nervous system

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1. Measuring heart rate
2. Sweat response (Galvanic skin response)
3. Vasoconstriction in arteries and veins (sympathetic)
4. Measure blood flow to different parts of the body.
5. Finger and Facial temperature, which reflects changes in blood flow and vasodilation.

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Autonomic Specificity

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William James supporting:

-There are over a dozen distinct autonomic pathways that activate different regions of the body, so different emotions could potentially be involved with distinct pathways in the autonomic nervous system.

-One can imagine many different ways in which components of the autonomic system could combine, and such patterns could possibly account for the diversity of human experience.

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Walter Cannon

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A student of William James at Harvard. Proposed that bodily changes are produced by the brain, and that they are similar during different emotions such as anger and fear. (Arousal response)

-arousal response includes release of hormone adrenaline, and the effects are a shift to prepare for fight, flight, and sexual behavior.

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Cannon's arguments against William James

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-the responses of the ANS are too non-specific to account for the distinct varieties of emotional experience. The variations in heart rate, for example, were too small between "distinct" emotions. The labeling, he contended, resided in the brain and not the body.

-The ANS responses are too slow to account for the rapidity with which we experience emotion, or move from one emotion to the other (typically 15 to 30 seconds after perceived stimulus).

-the main actions of the autonomic nervous system actually occur in a variety of other states, such as fevers, cold exposure, or asphyxia.

-questioned whether the ANS is sensitive enough to result in the many emotional states we experience. Most recent studies have found that people are only moderately attuned to their heart rate activity or other bodily responses.

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Two-factor theory of emotion

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Schachter and Singer

-how people construe emotional situations as the source of different emotional experiences.

-A single type of general arousal is associated with very different emotions.

-Theory added to interest in Appraisal (arnold and gasson).

-found that people do tend to label and experience their arousal according to what is happening in the current situation

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Ekman and Friesen

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Developed FACS, a coding system that allowed them to identify facial muscle actions of the face.

noticed moving facial muscles changed how he felt

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Ekman, Friesen, and Levenson

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-Results of study challenged some of Cannon's arguments

-Differences found among negative emotions, ex: large increases of heart rate occurred for fear, anger, and sadness, but almost none for disgust.

2nd: Galvanic skin responses (sweat activity) was found to be greater for fear and disgust than for anger and sadness

3rd: Finger temperature was greater for anger and fear, suggesting that in anger blood flows freely to the hands (to aid in combat), blood remains near chest to enhance a flight response, due to vasoconstriction in the veins of the chest and arm in fear more than in anger.

4th: Negative emotions differ on certain measures of autonomic activity

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When participants produced better reproductions of expressions

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they themselves reported experiencing the target emotion

ex: Disgust- more likely to show reduced heart rate, increased galvanic skin response for fear and disgust, and increased finger temp for anger compared to fear.

Lends further credence to idea that once an emotion is activated, it is associated with some distinct physiological responses

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the Blush

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Mark Twain-"humans are the only one who blush, or who need to"
-but some animals do
Darwin- blush as a result of self-focused attention
Leary- negative, self-focused attention, the recipients of undesirable social attention, attention that is potentially damaging to our self-concept, in particular in the eyes of others.

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Distinct features of embarrassment/blush

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-People blush more when embarrased than when afraid, and body heat and face coloration is correlated when afraid, suggesting that fear and embarrassment may may involve distinct cortical regions

-Embarrasment is associated with reduced heart rate, which may be the product of inhibited sympathetic and increased parasympathetic nervous system activity.

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Porges three stages of in the evolution of the ANS

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1. Produced in the dorsal vagal complex, present in all species. Regulates digestive processes, and it produces the immobilization response seen in in many reptiles and fish when attacked by predators.

2. Sympathetic Nervous system emerges, that controls fight and flight behavior

3. Ventral Vagal Complex. Only in mammals. Controlled by tenth cranial nerve, known as the vagus nerve. Affects several behaviors critical to social interaction and attachment, such as facial muscle actions and vocalizations.

Also influences cardiac output and emotion regulation.

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Vagal Tone

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Measured by looking at the patterns of heart rate, then filtering out respiratory and sympathetic influences on heart rate, thus yielding an index of parasympathetic influence on heart rate.

Vagal influences upon the PSNS may be associated with social engagement and altruistic emotions like love and compassion.

exp: Participants who witnessed compassion displayed increased vagal tone, decreased heart rate when reported intention to help and heard of woman's plight. Compassion slides triggered elevated parasympathetic activity, suggesting that vagal tone is involved in positive emotions that include pro-social response (correlates with love and sympathy)

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Fear

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Accelerations in Heart Rate

Vasoconstrictions that produce cold hands and feet, blood closer to the chest

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Hohman 1966

Bermond 1991

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Spinal injuries- men who had lost all sensation below the injury.

-most reported decreases in sexual feeling
-decreased feelings of fear and anger
-increase in feelings of sentimentality
-Intense mental emotions
bermond:
did not have a noticable effect in emotions

Challenges James' notion that emotions are crucially based in ANS

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Action Readiness

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Frijda: Action readiness supported by autonomic activity is the core of an emotion. Emotions are about preparing the individual for different courses of action in response to events.

-Tendencies to approach goals, to soothe, to aggress, to submit, etc.

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ventromedial frontal cortex

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Patients damaged in frontal lobes had "acquired sociopathy" like phineas gage, they show inappropriate manners and a lack of concern for the well-being of others

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Somatic Marker Hypothesis

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Damasio (1994)

The socioemotional guidance system is affected in the brains of those with damaged ventromedial frontal cortexes.

Emotional events are experienced as bodily reactions, somatic markers as he callse them. Our emotions guide our decision making, those with damaged emotional memories or instincts do not comply to these guides.

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Sleeping sickness

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encephalitis lethargica

-started in Europe
-virus attacked striatal regions of the brain
-treated with L-dopa

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neuroimaging

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A machine monitors biochemical events in a series of conceptual slices through a person's brain, while a computer takes this information and constructs visual images of the brain to show which regions have been metabolically most active.

-non invasive

include fmri and pet

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fMRI

and

PET

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Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging

and

Positron Emission Tomography

Pictures constructed to show brain activity changing over time in the course of (for example) different emotional states

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Ways of exploring the mind

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Anatomy, lesions, stimulation, pharmacology, and electrical recording (PET and fMRI)

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The Hind Brain

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Includes regions that control basic physiological processes: the medulla, the pons, and the cerebellum.

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Medulla Oblongata

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regulates cardiovascular activity (Hind brain)

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Pons

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Controls human sleep (Hind Brain)

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Cerebellum

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involved in controlling motor movement. (Hind Brain)

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the Fore Brain

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the thalamus, hippocampus, hypothalamus, the limbic system, the cortex, and frontal lobes

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Thalamus

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involved in integrating sensory information

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Hippocampus

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critical for memory processes (forebrain)

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hypothalamus

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regulates important biological functions like eating, sexual behavior, aggression, and bodily temperature (forebrain)

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Limbic system

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Structures involved in emotions like the amygdala (forebrain)

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the cortex

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most sets the human brain apart from that of other species.

Closely associated with our abilities to lead complex social lives (forebrain)

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Frontal Lobes

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Of cortex

Involved in planning and intentional action, as well as in emotional regulation (forebrain)

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Walter Cannon

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Brain lesions and stimulation.

Cats deprived of their cortex acted aggressively, made sudden inappropriate undirected attacks called "sham rage".

proposed cortex inhibits its expression, and controls all levels below it.

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Papez' Theory

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Sensory impulses from the body and outside world reach the thalamus and split into three main pathways. One goes to the striatal region, the stream of movement. One goes to the neocortex, the stream of thought. One goes to the limbic system, the stream of feeling.

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Striatal Region

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Most basic region of the forebrain. Devoted to scheduling and generating basic behaviors, including preparation and establishment of a home site, marking and patrolling of the territory, foraging, hunting, hoarding, forming social groups, greeting, grooming, mating, flocking, and migration

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Amygdala removed or damaged

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Become docile, completely indiscriminate and approached everything without fear.

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Stimulation of septal region of limbic system

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tendency to approach

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temporal lobe epilepsy

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nerve cells in a region of the brain all start firing together in a self-sustaining pattern, a kind of electrical storm that spreads.

In temporal, discharges are located within the limbic system, which implies that the region is physiologically separated. These are usually preceded by strong emotions. (paroxysm)

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Maclean-Panksepp conjecture

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The experience of emotions in generated in the limbic system, and and that each distinct emotions type is based on a particular system of limbic brain circuitry.

This circuitry creates a readiness for a species characteristic process or behavior, somewhat appropriate to the trigger.

LeDoux argued that these things can be specified to the amygdala

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The amygdala as the appraisal mechanism for emotions

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LeDoux

-The amygdala has connections to the right places to fulfill this role. It receives inputs from the regions of the cortex concerned with vision and sound.

-Also has close connections to the hypothalamus, also known to have emotional connections

-rewarding self-stimulation can be observed

-the amygdala receives visual and auditory inputs directly from thalamus, not via routes.

-will learn associations with unconditioned stimulus as long as thalamus and amygdala are present

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right-brain superiority

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easier to recognize facial expressions of emotion

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Prefrontal cortex and emotion regulation

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1. Patients with damage to orbitfrontal cortex have problems regulating their emotional behavior, that is, they have difficulties showing appropriate emotional reactions
2. Imaging studies show that regions of the prefrontal cortex are activated when people try to inhibit emotional responses to evocative stimuli.

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Left and Right Hemispheres

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Left: associated with right side of body, positive emotional activation. Left sided strokes induce depressive states. More ready to interpret experience in terms of language.
right: negative emotional activation, right sided strokes induce mania. right responds more readily to the emotional content of stimuli

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Mirror Neurons

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-fired either when an intended action by another individual was perceived by the monkey or when the same action was carried out by the monkey itself.

-can link these kinds of neurons to empathy.

ex: Insula activated when feeling or percieving someone else's disgust

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Neurotransmitters

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-substances released into the synapses of nerve cells
-most have small molecules (diffuse rapidly).
-acetyl choline, nor-adrenaline, dopamine, serotonin, GAMA
-Amino acids: like small fragments of proteins called peptides: glutamine, often used as a taste enhancer (MSG)
-Are released by nerve impulses from the end of a neuron's axon, diffuse rapidly across synaptic gaps between cells to activate or inhibit the receiving neuron or muscle fiber

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Hormones

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substances carried in the blood to affect organs that are sensitive to them.
-take longer to act than transmittters, effects tend to endure for long periods of time.
-small molecules: adrenaline and cortisol
-principally controlled by pituitary, which is controlled by hypothalamus

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Neuromodulators

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Many are peptides
-change the effectiveness of transmitter substances
-ex: endogenous opiates moderate the pain system, cholecystokinin has an important emotional effect.

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Serotonin

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-neurotransmitter
-low levels related to clinical states of depression, found in people with histories of violent crime
-drugs that increase its concentration in synapses by blocking its reuptake (like Prozac/fluoxetine) are anti-depressants
-called "designer drugs" because people who are not clinically diagnosed use them to "take the edge off"
-in people with no psychiatric problems, SSRIs reduced indices of hostility and negative affect, and increased cooperation and affiliation
-depressed patients on SSRIs show decreased activity in subgenual cingulate cortex, and increased in prefrontal, opposite of normal limbic and cortical changes in induced sadness situations

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Cholecystokinin

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A peptide that induces panic attacks without external cause, modulates effects of neurotransmitters.
-symptoms include: dizziness, despersonalization, strong panicky fear
-increases in blood flow in the limbic system

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Nucleus Accumbens

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-lies at front of sub-cortical forebrain
-rich in dopamine and opioid neurotransmitter pahtways, so has been thought central to positive affect
ex: elevated activation in response to pleasurable food, etc
-(Berridge) found that NA and dopamine are not simply central to positive affect, but that the activation of opiate receptors, not dopamine receptors, enhances the value of the taste of sucrose, creating a distinction between wanting and needing.
-so activation in NA and dopamine release creates wanting

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Wanting vs. Needing

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Wanting- the motivated, goal-oriented, approach to rewards. It involved dopamine release and activation in the nucleus accumbens. Lesions in NA reduce the motivation to work for reward.

Liking- involves the consummatory processes and the enjoyment of rewards. Central to this are the opiates, which are released by lactation, nursing, sexual activity, maternal social interaction, and touch. Opiates produce a state of pleasant calmness and quiescence.

When opiates are blocked (in rats), they are less social and spend more time alone.

So basically, dopamine and NA motivate you to get incentive, and opiates are involved in the enjoyment of said incentive.

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Oxytocin

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Peptide of nine amino acid
-produced in the hypothalamus, released into both brain and blood stream.
-promotes bonding behavior possibly by reducing anxiety, thought to be a biological substrate of love and prosocial behavior
-correlates strongly with feelings of love, but not desire
-trust: oxytocin increases people's willingness to accept interpersonal risks arising from economic exchanges with others.

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stress

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a condition in which personal challenges exceed the individual's capacities and resources. In the short term, it is an adaptive process, helping people respond to threats, dangers, and chronic stress.

Long term, chronic stress produced by enduring sources of tension can lead to heart disease, cancer, and even cell death in the hippocampus and memory loss.
Social threats can lead to health problems as well.
There are many different kinds of stresses

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Stein, Trabasso, and Liwag (1994)

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1. An event, usually unexpected, is perceived that changes the status of a valued goal
2. Beliefs are often challenged; this can cause
3. Plans are formed about what to do about the event to reinstate or modify the goal, and the likely results of the plans are considered.

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Liking of Chinese Ideograph

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Affected when stimuli was suboptimal/subliminal

More after presented with a smile, less after presented with angry scowl.

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Negative vs. Positive

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-Negative evaluations appear to be more potent than positive ones
-Negative emotions might seem more intense, or more readily elicited, and harder to regulate
-trigger more rapid, stronger physiological responses that positive stimuli, generates more brain activity