Educational Theories

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Pancea

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Solution or remedy for difficulties

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Pierce, Charles,Sanders (1923)

Four Methods

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Method of tenacity

Method of authority

Method of prior reasoning

Method of experiment

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Cacophony

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Clamor, dischord, dissonance

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Epistemologies

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The theory of knowledge, especially with regard to its methods,Validity, and scope. Epistemology is the investigation of what distinguishes justified belief from opinion.

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Welter

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Confusion, jumble, tangle, mess

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Empiricism

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The theory that all knowledge is derived from sense-experience. Stimulated by the rise of experimental science, developed in the17th and 18th centuries; Expounded in particular by John Locke, George Berkeley, and David Hume

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Positivism

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A philosophical system that holds that every rationally justifiable assertion can be scientifically verified or is capable of logical or mathematical proof, and that therefore rejects metaphysic and theism. The theory that laws are to be understood as social rules, valid because they are enacted by authority or derive logically from existing decisions, and that ideal or moral considerations (e.g. that a rule is unjust) should not limit the scope or operation of the law.

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Post-positivism

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The theory that laws are to be understood as social rules; valid because they are enacted by authority or derive logically from existing decisions, and that ideal or moral considerations (e.g., that a rule is unjust) should not limit the scope or operation of the law.

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External relations

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A relation between any two entities such that if they had not been in this relation to each other, the nature of each would not necessarily have been different.

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Paradigmatic

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of the nature of a paradigm or model. “They offer this database as a paradigmatic example” Of or denoting the relationship between a set of linguistic items that form mutually exclusive choices in particular syntactic roles.

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Paradigm

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A typical example or pattern of something; a model.

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Confluence

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An act or process of merging

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Ontology

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The branch of metaphysics dealing with the nature of being. Inquiry methodology can no longer be treated as a set of universally applicable rules or abstractions. Methodology is inevitably interwoven with and emerges from the nature of particular disciplines (such as sociology and psychology) and in particular perspectives (such as Marxism,feminist Theory, and queer theory)

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Action researchpractitioners

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Is a disciplined process of inquiry conducted by and for those taking the action. The primary reason for engaging in action research is to Assist the “actor” in improving and/or refining his or her actions. Practitioners who engage in action research inevitable find it to be an empowering experience. Action research has this positive effect for many reasons. The most important is that action research is always relevant to the participants. Relevance is guaranteed because the focus of each research project is determined by the researchers, who are also the primary consumers of the findings.

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Postmodern critical theory

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Concerns itself with “forms of authority and injustice that accompanied the evolution of industrial and corporate capitalism as a political-economic system,“postmodern critical theory politicizes social problems “by situating them in historical and cultural contexts, to implicate themselves in the process of collecting and analyzing data, and to relativize their findings”. Meaning itself is seen as unstable due to the rapid transformation in social structures. As a result focus of research is centered on local manifestations,rather than broad generalizations. Postmodern critical research is also characterized by the crisis of representation, which rejects the idea that a researcher’s work is an “objective depiction of a stable other.” Instead, many postmodern scholars have adopted “alternatives that encourage reflection about the politics and poetics of their work. In these accounts the embodied, collaborative, dialogic, and improvisational aspects of qualitative research are clarified.

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Axiomatic

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Self-evident or unquestionable

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Hermanuetic

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Concerning interpretation, method or theory of interpretation

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Emancipation

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The fact or process of being set free from legal, social, or political restrictions; liberation.

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Post colonial

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Occurring or existing after the end of the colonial rule

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Colonialism

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The policy or practice of acquiring full or partial political control over another country, occupying it with settler, andexploiting it economically

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Ethnography

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Systematic study of people and cultures. It is designed to explore cultural phenomena where the researcher observes society from the point of view of the subject of the study

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Commensurable

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Measurable by the same standard

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Axiom

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A statement or proposition that is regarded as being established, accepted,or self-evidently true

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Limn

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Depict or describe in painting or words suffuse or highlight something with a bright color or light

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Conflate

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Combine (two or more texts, idea, etc.) into one

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Criteriology

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is the quest for permanent or stable criteria of rationality founded in the desire for objectivism and the belief that we must somehow transcend the limitations to knowing that are the inevitable consequence of our sociotemporal perspective as knowers

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naturalism

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a philosophical viewpoint according to which everything arises from natural properties and causes, and supernatural or spiritual explanations are excluded or discounted.

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relativism

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the doctrine that knowledge, truth, and morality exist in relation to culture, society, or historical context, and are not absolute.

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feminist standpoint epistemology

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Feminist standpoint theorists make three principal claims: (1) Knowledge is socially situated. (2) Marginalized groups are socially situated in ways that make it more possible for them to be aware of things and ask questions than it is for the non-marginalized. (3) Research, particularly that focused on power relations, should begin with the lives of the marginalized. Feminist standpoint theory, then, makes a contribution to epistemology, to methodological debates in the social and natural sciences, to philosophy of science, and to political activism. It has been one of the most influential and debated theories to emerge from second-wave feminist thinking. Feminist standpoint theories place relations between political and social power and knowledge center-stage. These theories are both descriptive and normative, describing and analyzing the causal effects of power structures on knowledge while also advocating a specific route for enquiry, a route that begins from standpoints emerging from shared political struggle within marginalized lives. Feminist standpoint theories emerged in the 1970s, in the first instance from Marxist feminist and feminist critical theoretical approaches within a range of social scientific disciplines. They thereby offer epistemological and methodological approaches that are specific to a variety of disciplinary frameworks, but share a commitment to acknowledging, analyzing and drawing on power/knowledge relationships, and on bringing about change which results in more just societies. Feminist scholars working within a number of disciplines—such as Dorothy Smith, Nancy Hartsock, Hilary Rose, Sandra Harding, Patricia Hill Collins, Alison Jaggar and Donna Haraway—have advocated taking women’s lived experiences, particularly experiences of (caring) work, as the beginning of scientific enquiry. Central to all these standpoint theories are feminist analyses and critiques of relations between material experience, power, and epistemology, and of the effects of power relations on the production of knowledge.

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foundationalism

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Foundationalism is a view about the structure of justification or knowledge. The foundationalist's thesis in short is that all knowledge and justified belief rest ultimately on a foundation of non-inferential knowledge or justified belief.

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postmodernism

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describes both an era and a broad movement that developed in the late-20th century across philosophy, the arts, architecture, and criticism which marked a departure from modernism.[1][2][3] While encompassing a broad range of ideas and projects, postmodernism is typically defined by an attitude of skepticism or distrust toward grand narratives, ideologies, and various tenets of Enlightenment rationality, including the existence of objective reality and absolute truth, as well as notions of rationality, human nature, and progress.[4] Instead, it asserts that knowledge and truth are the product of unique systems of social, historical, and political discourse and interpretation, and are therefore contextual and constructed. Accordingly, postmodern thought is broadly characterized by tendencies to epistemological and moral relativism, pluralism, self-referentiality, and irony.[4]The term postmodernism has been applied both to the era following modernity, and to a host of movements within that era (mainly in art, music, and literature) that reacted against tendencies in modernism.[5] Postmodernism includes skeptical critical interpretations of culture, literature, art, philosophy, history, linguistics,economics, architecture, fiction, and literary criticism. Postmodernism is often associated with schools of thought such as deconstruction and post-structuralism, as well as philosophers such as Jacques Derrida, Jean Baudrillard, and Frederic Jameson.

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Peter Godfrey-Smith(1996)

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Contemporary philosopher – distinguishes betweenTwo approaches to knowing, “externalist” and “internalist”. Considered a third approach which hedescribed as a form of “weak constructivism” or “interactionism”

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Externalists

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External accounts view the properties of the environmentAs the principle factors explaining the properties of mind, Thought, or knowledge. “the logic of externalist explanationis the logicOf the adaptationist evolutionary thought, associationistpsychology such As behaviorist learning theory, and many brands of empiricistepistemologyExternalist emphasizes the way the external world affectswhat we can (and should) know

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John Locke

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Key principal founders (one of ) of empiricism, was a keyfigure in the formation of this externalist tradition.

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Internalists

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Internalists accounts turn the issue around, suggesting thatthe most important determinants of thought or knowledge arise from the “inner”constraints of the mind or distinctions built into language or culture. Internalistsemphasizes the way the internal structure of the mind, culture, or languageaffects knowledge.

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Immanuel Kant

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Internalist – “until now one assumed that all cognition hadto conform to objects…henceforth one might try to find out whether we do notget further…if we assume that the objects have to conform to our cognition”.The Kantian or internalist approach would be an example of strongconstructivism.

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The Kantian orinternalist approach

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Example of strong constructivism is thinking alters action, which subsequently affects the external world, thereby affecting one’s sensory input, then “internal” and “external” factors affect one another, at least indirectly. Here the external world is not simply given, as in the externalist account, because the way “it” behaves depends on what one does to it. Nor does the mind unilaterally determine the way things are, as in at least some versions of the internalist approach, because one’s ideas have to work out in practice when interacting in the world. The traditional source of this line of thinking comes from dialectical or historist philosophy such as Hegel and Marx. A nonhistorist or nontelelogical version of this approach, termed “interactional”or “transactional” to pragmatists, like John Dewey, although a case can also be made for considering pragmatism as a fourth family of approaches

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Dialecticalphilosophy

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“Dialectics” is a term used to describe a method of philosophical argument that involves some sort of contradictory process between opposing sides. In what is perhaps the most classic version of “dialectics”, the ancient Greek philosopher, Plato (see entry on Plato), for instance, presented his philosophical argument as a back-and-forth dialogue or debate, generally between the character of Socrates, on one side, and some person or group of people to whom Socrates was talking (his interlocutors), on the other. In the course of the dialogues, Socrates’ interlocutors propose definitions of philosophical concepts or express views that Socrates challenges or opposes. The back-and-forth debate between opposing sides produces a kind of linear progression or evolution in philosophical views or positions: as the dialogues go along, Socrates’ interlocutors change or refine their views in response to Socrates’ challenges and come to adopt more sophisticated views. The back-and-forth dialectic between Socrates and his interlocutors thus becomes Plato’s way of arguing against the earlier, less sophisticated views or positions and for the more sophisticated ones later.“Hegel’s dialectics” refers to the particular dialectical method of argument employed by the 19th Century German philosopher, G.W.F. Hegel (see entry on Hegel), which, like other “dialectical” methods, relies on a contradictory process between opposing sides. Whereas Plato’s “opposing sides” were people (Socrates and his interlocutors), however, what the “opposing sides” are in Hegel’s work depends on the subject matter he discusses. In his work on logic, for instance, the “opposing sides” are different definitions of logical concepts that are opposed to one another. In the Phenomenology of Spirit, which presents Hegel’s epistemology or philosophy of knowledge, the “opposing sides” are different definitions of consciousness and of the object that consciousness is aware of or claims to know. As in Plato’s dialogues, a contradictory process between “opposing sides” in Hegel’s dialectics leads to a linear evolution or development from less sophisticated definitions or views to more sophisticated ones later. The dialectical process thus constitutes Hegel’s method for arguing against the earlier, less sophisticated definitions or views and for the more sophisticated ones later. Hegel regarded this dialectical method or “speculative mode of cognition” (PR §10) as the hallmark of his philosophy, and used the same method in the Phenomenology of Spirit [PhG], as well as in all of the mature works he published later—the entire Encyclopaedia of Philosophical Sciences (including, as its first part, the “Lesser Logic” or the Encyclopaedia Logic [EL]), the Science of Logic [SL], and the Philosophy of Right[PR].Note that, although Hegel acknowledged that his dialectical method was part of a philosophical tradition stretching back to Plato, he criticized Plato’s version of dialectics. He argued that Plato’s dialectics deals only with limited philosophical claims and is unable to get beyond skepticism or nothingness (SL-M 55–6; SL-dG 34–5; PR, Remark to §31). According to the logic of a traditional reductio ad absurdum argument, if the premises of an argument lead to a contradiction, we must conclude that the premises are false—which leaves us with no premises or with nothing. We must then wait around for new premises to spring up arbitrarily from somewhere else, and then see whether those new premises put us back into nothingness or emptiness once again, if they, too, lead to a contradiction. Because Hegel believed that reason necessarily generates contradictions, as we will see, he thought new premises will indeed produce further contradictions. As he puts the argument, then,the scepticism that ends up with the bare abstraction of nothingness or emptiness cannot get any further from there, but must wait to see whether something new comes along and what it is, in order to throw it too into the same empty abyss. (PhG §79)Hegel argues that, because Plato’s dialectics cannot get beyond arbitrariness and skepticism, it generates only approximate truths, and falls short of being a genuine science (SL-M 55–6; SL-dG 34–5; PR, Remark to §31; cf. EL Remark to §81).

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Historist philosophy

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A theory that events are determined or influenced by processes beyond the control of humans. The view that historical awareness is critical for understanding in a particular field or in general. The view that historical periods should be studied without imposing anachronistic (a thing or person that is not in its correct historical or chronological time, especially a thing or person that belongs to a earlier time) categories of evaluation

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Hegel

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Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831) is one of the greatest systematic thinkers in the history of Western philosophy. In addition to epitomizing German idealist philosophy, Hegel boldly claimed that his own system of philosophy represented an historical culmination of all previous philosophical thought. Hegel's overall encyclopedic system is divided into the science of Logic, the philosophy of Nature, and the philosophy of Spirit. Of most enduring interest are his views on history, society, and the state, which fall within the realm of Objective Spirit. Some have considered Hegel to be a nationalistic apologist for the Prussian State of the early 19th century, but his significance has been much broader, and there is no doubt that Hegel himself considered his work to be an expression of the self-consciousness of the World Spirit of his time. At the core of Hegel's social and political thought are the concepts of freedom, reason, self-consciousness, and recognition. There are important connections between the metaphysical or speculative articulation of these ideas and their application to social and political reality, and one could say that the full meaning of these ideas can be grasped only with a comprehension of their social and historical embodiment. The work that explicates this concretizing of ideas, and which has perhaps stimulated as much controversy as interest, is the Philosophy of Right (Philosophie des Rechts), which will be a main focus of this essay.

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Marx

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Karl Marx[note 1] (/mɑːrks/;[6] German: [ˈkaɐ̯l ˈmaɐ̯ks]; 5 May 1818 – 14 March 1883) was a philosopher, economist, sociologist, journalist, and revolutionary socialist. Born in Prussia to a middle-class family, he later studied political economy andHegelian philosophy. As an adult, Marx became stateless and spent much of his life in London, England, where he continued to develop his thought in collaboration with German thinker Friedrich Engels and published various works, the most well-known being the 1848 pamphlet The Communist Manifesto. His work has since influenced subsequent intellectual, economic, and political history.Marx's theories about society, economics and politics—collectively understood asMarxism—hold that human societies develop through class struggle: a conflict between ruling classes (known as the bourgeoisie) that control the means of production and working classes (known as the proletariat) that work on these means by selling their labour for wages. Through his theories of alienation, value,commodity fetishism, and surplus value, Marx argued that capitalism facilitated social relations and ideology through commodification, inequality, and theexploitation of labour. Employing a critical approach known as historical materialism, Marx propounded the theory of base and superstructure, asserting that the cultural and political conditions of society, as well as its notions of human nature, are largely determined by obscured economic foundations. These economic critiques would result in influential works such as Capital, Volume I (1867).According to Marx, states are run in the interests of the ruling class but are nonetheless represented as being in favor of the common interest of all.[7] He predicted that, like previous socioeconomic systems, capitalism produced internal tensions which would lead to its self-destruction and replacement by a new system:socialism. For Marx, class antagonisms under capitalism, owing in part to its instability and crisis-prone nature, would eventuate the working class' development of class consciousness, leading to their conquest of political power and eventually the establishment of a classless, communist society governed by a free association of producers.[8][9] Marx actively fought for its implementation, arguing that the working class should carry out organised revolutionary action to topple capitalism and bring about socio-economic emancipation.[10]Marx has been described as one of the most influential figures in human history, and his work has been both lauded and criticised.[11] His work in economics laid the basis for much of the current understanding of labour and its relation to capital, and subsequent economic thought.[12][13][14][15] Many intellectuals, labour unions, artists and political parties worldwide have been influenced by Marx's work, with many modifying or adapting his ideas. Marx is typically cited as one of the principal architects of modern sociology[16] and social science.[17]

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“Interactional”

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reciprocal action, effect, or influence.2.Physics.the direct effect that one kind of particle has on another, in particular, in inducing the emission or absorption of one particle by another.the mathematical expression that specifies the nature and strength of this effect.

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“Transactional”

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Transactional leadership, also known as managerial leadership, focuses on supervision, organization, and group performance;transactional leadership is a style of leadership in which leaders promote compliance by followers through both rewards and punishments.

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Chomsky Mentalism inlinquistics and pscholinguistics

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Avram Noam Chomsky (/ˈnoʊm ˈtʃɒmski/; born December 7, 1928) is an American linguist, philosopher, cognitive scientist, historian, logician, social critic, and political activist. Sometimes described as "the father of modern linguistics", Chomsky is also a major figure in analytic philosophy, and one of the founders of the field of cognitive science. Based at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) since 1955, where he is Institute Professor Emeritus, he is the author of over 100 books on topics such as linguistics, war, politics, and mass media. Ideologically, he aligns with anarcho-syndicalism and libertarian socialism.Born to middle-class Ashkenazi Jewish immigrants in Philadelphia, Chomsky developed an early interest in anarchism from alternative bookstores in New York City. At the age of sixteen he began studies at the University of Pennsylvania, taking courses in linguistics, mathematics, and philosophy. He married fellow linguist Carol Schatz in 1949. From 1951 to 1955 he was appointed to Harvard University's Society of Fellows, where he developed the theory of transformational grammar for which he was awarded his doctorate in 1955. That year he began teaching at MIT, in 1957 emerging as a significant figure in the field of linguistics for his landmark work Syntactic Structures while from 1958 to 1959 he was a National Science Foundation fellow at the Institute for Advanced Study. He is credited as the creator or co-creator of the universal grammar theory, the generative grammar theory, the Chomsky hierarchy, and the minimalist program. Chomsky also played a pivotal role in the decline of behaviorism, being particularly critical of the work ofB. F. Skinner.An outspoken opponent of U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War, which he saw as an act of American imperialism, in 1967 Chomsky attracted widespread public attention for an essay on the subject. Associated with the New Left, he was arrested multiple times for his activism and placed on President Richard Nixon'sEnemies List. While expanding his work in linguistics over subsequent decades, he also became involved in the Linguistics Wars. In collaboration with Edward S. Herman, Chomsky later developed the propaganda model of media criticism, and worked to expose the Indonesian occupation of East Timor. However, his defense of unconditional freedom of speech – including that of Holocaust denial – generated significant controversy in the Faurisson affair of the early 1980s. Following his retirement from active teaching, he has continued his vocal political activism, including opposing the War on Terror and supporting the Occupy movement.One of the most cited scholars in history, Chomsky has influenced an array of academic fields. He is widely recognized as a paradigm shifter who helped spark a major revolution in the human sciences, contributing to the development of a new cognitivistic framework for the study of language and the mind. He remains a leading critic of U.S. foreign policy, neoliberalism and contemporary state capitalism, the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, and mainstream news media. His ideas have proved highly significant within the anti-capitalist and anti-imperialist movements, but have also drawn criticism, with some accusing Chomsky of anti-Americanism and alleging that he is sympathetic to terrorism and genocide denial.

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John Dewey: fourthapproach Pragmatism

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Pragmatism was a philosophical tradition that originated in the United States around 1870. The most important of the ‘classical pragmatists’ were Charles Sanders Peirce (1839–1914), William James (1842–1910) and John Dewey (1859–1952). The influence of pragmatism declined during the first two thirds of the twentieth century, but it has undergone a revival since the 1970s with philosophers being increasingly willing to use the writings and ideas of the classical pragmatists, and also a number of thinkers, such as Richard Rorty, Hilary Putnam and Robert Brandom developing philosophical views that represent later stages of the pragmatist tradition. The core of pragmatism was the pragmatist maxim, a rule for clarifying the contents of hypotheses by tracing their ‘practical consequences’. In the work of Pierce and James, the most influential application of the pragmatist maxim was to the concept of truth. But the pragmatists have also tended to share a distinctive epistemological outlook, a fallibilist anti-Cartesian approach to the norms that govern inquiry.For much of the twentieth century, pragmatism was largely in eclipse. Few philosophers were familiar with the works of classical pragmatists such as Charles Sanders Pierce and William James, and pragmatist ideas were not at the centre of debate. John Dewey, who had been a dominant philosophical figure in the 1920s, was no longer a central figure. Analytical philosophers and their students had a central role in philosophy. It was not until the 1970s that interest in the writings of the Pragmatists became widespread and pragmatist ideas were recognized as able to make a major contribution to philosophy.Most of this entry is devoted to the ideas of the classical pragmatists, Peirce, James, and Dewey. But towards the end of the entry we shall explore what are sometimes called ‘the new pragmatists’. These are philosophers who revitalized pragmatism, developing ideas that evidently belonged to the pragmatist tradition. As well as the figures mentioned above, these include Philip Kitcher, Huw Price, and others (Misak 2007, Malachowski 2013). There has also been a growing interest in the connections between pragmatism and idealism: (Margolis 2010, Stern 2009, chapters 7–10).

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Causal explanation

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is the most important type of deductive-nomological or covering law explanation. Historically, the theory of deductive-nomological explanation was developed out of the theory of causal explanation. Cause:something which brings about or increases the likelihood of an effect.Correlations point to and give evidence of causal.

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Scientific inquiry

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refers to the diverse ways in which scientists study the natural world ad propose explanations based onthe evidence derived from their work.

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Qualitative Research

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is primarily exploratory research. It is used to gain an understanding of underlying reasons, opinions, and motivations. It provides insights into the problem or helps to develop ideas or hypotheses for potential quantitative research.

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Gold standard

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a model of excellence; a parago

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Variance theory

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in probability theory and statistics, variance is theexpectation of the squared deviation of a random variable from its mean, and itinformally measures how far a set of (random) numbers are spread out from theirmean

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Epistemological diversity

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epistemology or theory of knowledge is a branch of philosophy that deals with the scope and nature of knowledge; different ways of knowing and diverse epistemological perspectives

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Methodological pluralism

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is the thesis that the use of not only multiple theoretical models but also multiple methodological approaches in the course of scientific practice is legitimate. “Given any rule, however ‘fundamental’ or ‘necessary’ for science, there are always circumstances when it is advisable not only to Methodological pluralism is the thesis that the use of not only multiple theoretical models but also multiple methodological approaches inthe course of scientific practice is legitimate

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Pluralism

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a condition or system in which two or more states, groups,principles, sources of authority, etc. coexist;

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Relativism

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the doctrine that knowledge, truth, and morality exist inrelation to culture, society, or historical context, and are not absolute

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Standpoint epistemology

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a feminist theoretical perspective that argues that knowledge stems from social position. The perspective denies that traditional science is objective and suggests that research and theory has ignored and marginalized women and feminist ways of thinking. The theory emerged from the Marxist argument that people from an oppressed class have special access toknowledge that is not available to those from a privileged class. In the 1970’s feminist writers inspired by that Marxist insight began to examine how inequalities between men and women influence knowledge production. Their work is related to epistemology, a branch of philosophy that examines the nature and origins of knowledge, and stresses that knowledge is always socially situated.In societies stratisfied by gender and other categories such as race and class,one’s social positions shape what one can know. American feminist theorist Sandra Harding coined the term standpoint theory to categorize epistemologies that emphasize women’s knowledge. Sheargued it is easy for those at the top of social herarchies to lose sight of the real human relations and true nature of social reality and thus miss critical questions about the social world and natural world in their academic pursuits. In contrast, people at the bottom of social hierarchies have a unique standpoint that is a better starting point for scholarship. Although such people are often ignored, their marginalized positions actually make it easier for them to define important research questions and explain social and natural problems. The basic idea of standpoint theories is that “in a socially stratisfied society, different social positions yield distinctive epistemic positions, and some are better than others”(Antony, 2002, p. 472). Sandra Harding’s important account of what she calls“strong objectivity” argues that “a feminist standpoint theory can direct the production of less partial and less distorted beliefs” (Harding, 1991, p. 138). Standpoint epistemology

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self study methodology

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involves a moral commitment to how to work with future teachers; a lens that reveals how educational experiences have influenced a person's development as a person, more generally, and a person's development as a teacher educator, specifically

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Non formal education (NFE)

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exists completely outside of any formal educational accreditation system

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Educational Psychologists and research

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Educational psychologist have a responsibility to seek broad perspectives and acquire a broad range of skills for conceptualizing and conducting research. Behrens and Smith, 1996

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media effects

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A media effect is a theory that relates how stories published in the media influence or amplify current trends. Borrowers or investors will read an article and be influenced to act quickly on the news.

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ETV (Environmental Technology Verification) Research another site said ETV is Educational Television

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EVT (Environmental Technology Verification) consists in the verification of performance of environmental techonologies or in other words is the establishment or validation of environmental technology performance by qualified third parties based on test data generated through testing using established protocols or specific requirements. Globally each programme has its own definitions, structure and procedures and programmes are not always inter-compatible. In 2007, and ETV International Working Group was formed to work on the convergence of the different programmes towards mutual recognition - under the motto Verified once, verified everywhere. The work of this group was at the origin of the request for drafting an ETV ISO standard.

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R.E. Clark (1994)

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wrote article Media Will Never Influence Learning; an article engaged in discussion to explain and sharpen different points of view about the impact of media and attributes of media on learning, motivation and efficiency gains from instruction; Clark's claims in part are that media are vehicles that deliver instruction but do not influence student acheivement; Clark further claimed that any necessary teaching method could be designed into a variety of media presentations and questioned the unique contributions of media attributes

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Schramm (1997)

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claimed learning is influenced more by the content and instructional strategy in a medium than the type of medium

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Salomon 1979 and others

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argued that it was not the medium which influenced learning but certain atrributes of media that can be modeled by learners and can shape the development of unique cognitive processess; critical argument: if there is no signle media attribute that serves a unique cognitive effect for some learning task, then the attributes must be proxies for some other varaibles that are instrumental in learning gains

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Instructional method

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is any way to shape information that activates, supplants or compensates for the cognitive processes necessary for achievement or motivation; is the inclusion of one of a number of possible representation of a cognitive process or strategy that is necessary for learning but which students cannot or will not provide for themselves

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Kozma (1994)

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asks readers to consider media as an integral aspect of method; Kozma hopes that future media research will be more positive; Kozma remains optimistic that with careful consideration of cognitive processes, a critical connection between media attributes and learning will be found

Question is does technology drive learning or does method of instruction drive learning?

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Educational technology

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is a design science not a natural science

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Winn (1989)

Shuell (1988)

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first principles - descriptions of the underlynig structure and functions of media which might serve as the causal mechanisms: learning is active, constructive, cognitive and social process by which the learner strategically manages available cognitive, physical and social resources to create new knowledge by interacting with information in the environment and integrating it with information already stored in memory (Shuell, 1988)

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Role of media in learning

Salomon 1993; Perkins & Globerson, 1991

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Role of media in learning: a) ground a theory of media in the cognitive and social processes by which knowledge is constructed, b) define media in ways that are compatible and complementary with these processes, c) conduct research on the mechanisms by which characteristics of media might interact with and influence these processes, d) design interventions in ways that embed media in these processes

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Field of instructional design and technology

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encompasses the analysis of learning and performance problems, and the design, development, implementation, evaluation and management of instructional and non-instructional processes and resources intended to improve learning and performance in a variety of settings, particularly educaitonal institution and he workplace; professionals in the field of instructional design and technology often use systematic instructional design procedures and employ a variety of instructional media to accomplish their goals. In recent years, they have paid increasing attention to non instructional solutions to some performance problems. Research and theory is important to the field

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5 categories of activities or practice

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a) design

b) development

c) utilization or implementation

d) management

e) evaluation

f) analysis

added in 1994 by AECT

g) the use of media for instructional pruposes and

h) the use of systematic instructional desgin procedures (instructional design)

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Instructional design and technology (IDT)

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directly refers to the key concepts

instructional design and instructional technology (instructional media)

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Instructional systems design (ISD)

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is the systematic development of instructional specifications using learning and instructional theory to ensure the quality of instruction. It is the entire process of analysis of learning needs and goals and the development of a delivery system to meet those needs

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programmed instruction movement

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mid 1950's to mid 1960's - factor in the development of the systems approach; programmed instructional materials, should present instruction in small steps, require overt responses to frequent questions, provide immediate feedback and allow forlearning self-pacing (B.F. Skinner 1958)

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Mager 1962

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book; preparing objectives for programmed instruction; how to write objectives:

a) include a description of desired learner behaviors

b) the conditions under which the behaviors are to be performed and

c) the standards (criteria) by which the behaviors are to be judged

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Ralph Tyler (1934)

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Behaviorial objectives movment

each objective must be defined in terms which clarify the kind of behavior which the course should help to develop

objectives could be clarified by stating them in behavioral terms, and those objectives could serve as the basis for evaluating the effectiveness of instruction (Borich, 1980; Tyler, 1975)

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Benjamin Bloom 1950

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Benjamin Bloom Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (Bloom, Engelhart, Furst, Hill, & Krathwohl, 1956) indicated that within the cognitive domain there were various types of learning outcomes, that objectives could be classified according to the type of learner behavior described therein, and that there was a hierarchical relationship among the various types of outcomes

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criterion referenced testing

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is intended to measure how well an individual can perform a particular behavior or set of behaviors, irrespective of how well others peform (Glaser 1963) - measures could be used to assess tudent entry level behavior and to determine the extent to which students had acquired the behaviors an instructional program was designed to teach; the use of criterion referenced tests for these two purposes is a central feature of instructional design procedures

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Robert M. Gagne: Domains of Learning, Events of Instruction, Hierarchical Analysis

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5 domains or types of learning outcomes:

a) verbal information

b) intellectual skills

c) psychomotor skills

d) attitudes

e) cognitive strategies

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Michael Scriven 1967

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formative evaluation - try out drafts of instructional materials with learners prior tothe time the materials were in their final form; process would enable educators to evaluate the effectiveness of materials while they were still in their formative stages and if necessary revise them before they were produced in their final form

Summative evalution - the testing of instructional materials aftrer they are in their final form

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Constructivism and instructional principles

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include requiring learners to:

a) solve complex and realistic problems

b) work together to solve those problems

c) examine the problems from multiple perspectives

d) take ownership of the learning process (rather than being passive recipients of instruction)

e) become aware of their own role in the knowledge construction process (Driscoll, 2000)

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proxies

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a person authorized to act on behalf of another

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cognition and learning

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central concepts in educational psychology

advance in psychology of cognition and learning includes: individual, social and environmental factors in a coherent, theoretical and practical understanding

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design experiments

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AL Brown 1992, Collins 1992 in these studies, researchers and practitioners particularly teachers, collaborate in the design, implementation, and analysis of changes in practice. Results provide case studies that can serve as instructive models about conditions that need to be satisfied for reforms of the same kind to be successful, and about conditions that impede success. Results also contribute to an accumulating body of theoretical principles about processes of cognition and learning in the social and material environments of schools and other settings

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3 general ways of knowing and learning

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empiricist

rationalist

pragmatist - sociohistoric

Case 1991, 1992 and Packer 1985

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acquisition metaphor

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Sfard (2015) states "human learning is conceived of as an acquisition of something"; definition of learning: "the act of gaining knowledge" (Collins English Dictionary). The process of learning (Piaget and Vygotski) and the growth of knowledge is called "concept development". This approach is gathering knowledge which forms concepts. Key words associated with the process of learning related to acquisition metaphor are: knowledge, concept, conception, idea, notion, misconception, meaning, sense, schema, fact, representation, material, contents. Key terms associated with the action of learning: reception, acquisition, construction, internalization, appropriation, transmission, attainment, development, accumulation, grasp

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participation metaphor

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New research talks about learning as an apprenticeship (Rogoff, 1990) in thinking also known as legitimate peripheral participation (Lave & Wenger, 1991). Learning a subject is a process of becoming a member of a certain community. This requires the ability to communicate in the language of the community and act according to its particular norms. Ongoing learning activities are never seen separately from the context within which they take place. Terms associated with participation metaphor are: situatedness, contextuality, cultural embeddness, and social mediation. The practice of participation key words: discourse, communication and suggests that the learner should be viewed as a person interested in participation in certain kinds of activities rather than in accumulating private possessions (Sfard, 2015)

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pertubation

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anxiety; mental uneasiness. A deviation of a system, moving object, or process from its regular or normal state of path, caused by an outside influence

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systematic conceptual mappings

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There are two main roles for the conceptual domains posited in conceptual metaphors...Target domain: the conceptual domain we try to understand (e.g., love is a journey). A mapping is the systematic set of correspondences that exist between constituent elements of the source and target domain (wikipedia)