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141 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Constructivism:
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view that emphasizes the active role of the learner in building understanding and making sense of information
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First wave constructivism:
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a focus on the individual and psychological sources of knowing, as in Piaget’s theory
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Radical constructivism:
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knowledge is assumed to be the individual’s construction; it cannot be judged right or wrong
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Appropriation:
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being able to internalize or take for yourself knowledge and skills developed in interaction with others or with cultural tools
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Second wave constructivism:
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a focus on the social and cultural sources of knowing; as in Vygotsky’s theory
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Constructionism:
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how public knowledge in disciplines such as science, math economics, or history is constructed
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Community of practice:
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social situation or context in which ideas are judged useful or true
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Situated learning:
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the idea that skills and learning are tied to the situation in which they are learned and difficult to apply in new settings
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Complex learning environments:
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problems and learning situations that mimic the ill-structured nature of real life
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Social negotiation:
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aspect of learning process that relies on collaboration with others and respect for different perspectives
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Intersubjective attitude:
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a commitment to build shared meaning with others by finding common ground and exchanging interpretations
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Multiple representations of content:
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considering problems using various analogies, examples, and metaphors
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Spiral curriculum:
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Bruner’s design for teaching that introduces the fundamental structures of all structures early in the school years, then revisits the subjects in more and more complex forms over time
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Enculturation:
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adopting the norms, behaviors, skills, beliefs, language, and attitudes of a particular community
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Social learning theory:
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theory that emphasizes learning through observation of others
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Social cognitive theory:
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theory that adds concern with cognitive factors such as beliefs, self-perceptions, and expectations to social learning theory
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Triarchic reciprocal causality:
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an explanation of behavior that emphasizes the mutual effects of the individual and the environment on each other
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Self-efficacy:
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a person’s sense of being able to deal effectively with a particular task
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Human agency:
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the capacity to coordinate learning skills, motivation, and emotions to reach your goals
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Mastery experiences:
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our own direct experiences—the most powerful source of efficacy information
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Arousal:
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physical and psychological reactions causing a person to feel alert, excited, or tense
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Vicarious experiences:
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accomplishments that are modeled by someone else
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Modeling:
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changes in behavior, thinking, or emotions that happen through observing another person
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Social persuasion:
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a “pep talk” or specific performance feedback—one source of self-efficacy
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Ripple effect:
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“contagious” spreading of behaviors through imitation
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Teachers’ sense of efficacy:
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a teacher’s belief that he or she can reach even the most difficult students and help them learn
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Self-regulation:
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process of activating and sustaining thoughts, behaviors, and emotions in order to reach goals
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Volition:
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will power; self-discipline; work styles that protect opportunities to reach goals by applying self-regulated learning
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Self-regulated learning:
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a view of learning as skills and will applied to analyzing learning tasks, setting goals and planning how to do the task, applying skills, and especially making adjustments about how learning is carried out
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Cognitive behavior modification:
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procedures based on both behavioral and cognitive learning principles for changing your own behavior by using self-talk and self-instruction
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Self-instruction:
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talking oneself through the steps of a task
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Motivation:
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an internal state that arouses, directs, and maintains behavior
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Intrinsic motivation:
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Motivation associated with activities that are their own reward
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Extrinsic motivation:
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Motivation created by external factors such as rewards and punishments
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Locus of causality:
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The location—internal or external—of the cause of behavior
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Reward:
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an attractive object or event supplied as a consequence of behavior
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Incentive:
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an object or event that encourages or discourages behavior
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Expectancy x value theories:
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explanations of motivation that emphasize individuals’ expectations for success combined with their valuing of the goal
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Sociocultural views of motivation:
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perspectives that emphasize participation, identities, and interpersonal relations within communities of practice
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Legitimate peripheral participation:
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genuine involvement in the work of the group, even if your abilities are undeveloped and contributions are small
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Hierarchy of needs:
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Maslow’s model of seven levels of human needs, from basic physiological requirements to the need for self-actualization
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Self-actualization:
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fulfilling one’s potential
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Deficiency needs:
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Maslow’s four lower-level needs, which must be satisfied first
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Need for autonomy:
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the desire to have our own wishes, rather than external rewards or pressures, determine our actions
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Cognitive evaluation theory:
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Theory that suggests that events affect motivation through the individual’s perception of the events as controlling behavior or providing information
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Goal:
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what an individual strives to accomplish
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Goal orientations:
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patterns of beliefs about goals related to achievement in school
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Mastery goal:
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a personal intention to improve abilities and learn, no matter how performance suffers
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Task-involved learning:
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students who focus on mastering the task or solving the problem
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Performance goal:
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a personal intention to seem competent or perform well in the eyes of others
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Ego-involved learners:
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students who focus on how well they are performing and how they are judged by others
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Work-avoidant learners:
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students who don’t want to learn or to look smart, but just to avoid work
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Social goals:
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a wide variety of needs and motives to be connected to others or part of a group
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Epistemological beliefs:
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beliefs about the structure, stability, and certainty of knowledge, and how knowledge is best learned
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Entity view of ability:
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belief that ability is a fixed characteristic that cannot be changed
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Incremental view of ability:
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belief that ability is a set of skills that can be changed
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Attribution theories:
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descriptions of how individuals’ explanations, justifications, and excuses influence their motivation and behavior
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Self-efficacy:
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beliefs about personal competence in a particular situation
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Learned helplessness:
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the expectation based on previous experiences with a lack of control, that all one’s efforts will lead to failure
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Mastery-oriented students:
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students who focus on learning goals because they value achievement and see ability as improvable
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Failure-avoiding students:
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students who avoid failure by sticking to what they know, by not taking risks, or by claiming not to care about their performance
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Self-handicapping:
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students may engage in behavior that blocks their own success in order to avoid testing their true ability
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Failure-accepting students:
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students who believe their failures are due to low ability and there is little they can do about it
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Anxiety:
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general uneasiness, a feeling of tension
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Academic tasks:
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the work the students must accomplish, including the content covered and the mental operations required
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Interest or intrinsic value:
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the enjoyment a person gets from a task
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Utility value:
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the contribution of a task to meetings one’s goals
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Authentic task:
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tasks that have some connection to real-life problems the students will face outside the classroom
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Problem-based learning:
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methods that provide students with realistic problems that don’t necessarily have right answers
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Goal structure:
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The way students relate to others who are also working toward a particular goal
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Humanistic interpretation:
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approach to motivation that emphasizes personal freedom, choice, self-determination, and striving for personal growth
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Being needs:
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Maslow’s three higher-level needs, sometimes called growth needs
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Arousal:
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physical and physiological reactions causing a person to be alert, attentive, wide awake
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Motivation to learn:
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the tendency to find academic activities meaningful and worthwhile and try to benefit from them
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Importance/attainment value:
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the importance of doing well on a task; how success on the task meets personal needs
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classroom management:
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techniques used to maintain a healthy learning environment, relatively free of behavior problems
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participation structures:
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rules defining how to participate in different activities
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allocated time:
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time set aside for learning
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engaged time/time on task:
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time spent actively engaged in the learning task at hand
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academic learning time:
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time when students are actually succeeding at the learning task
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self-management:
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management of your own behavior and acceptance of responsibility for you own actions
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procedures/routines:
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prescribed steps for an activity
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natural/logical consequences:
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instead of punishing, having students redo, repair, or in some way face the consequences that naturally flow from their actions
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Withitness:
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according to Kounin, awareness of everything happening in a classroom
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Group focus:
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the ability to keep as many students as possible involved in activities
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Movement management:
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keeping lessons and the group moving at an appropriate (and flexible) pace, with smooth transitions and variety
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rules:
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statements specifying expected and forbidden behaviors; dos and don’ts
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Overlapping:
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supervising several activities at once
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Expert teachers:
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experienced, effective teachers who have developed solutions for classroom problems
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Reflective:
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thoughtful and inventive. Describes teachers who think back over situations to analyze what they did and why and to consider how they might improve learning for their students
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Lesson study:
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as a group, teachers develop, test, improve, and retest lessons until they are satisfied with the final version
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Instructional objectives:
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clear statement of what students are intended to learn through the instruction
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Behavioral objectives:
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instructional objectives stated in terms of observable behaviors
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Taxonomy:
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classification systems
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Cognitive domain:
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in Bloom’s taxonomy, memory and reasoning objectives
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Affective domain:
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objectives focusing on attitudes and feelings
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Psychomotor domain:
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physical ability and coordination objectives
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Constructivist approach:
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view that emphasizes the active role of the learner in building understanding and making sense of information
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Expository teaching:
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Ausubel’s method—teachers present material in complete, organized form, moving from broadest to more specific content
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Meaningful verbal learning:
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focused and organized relationships among ideas and verbal information
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Deductive reasoning:
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drawing conclusions by applying rules or principles; logically moving from a general rule or principle to a specific solution
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Advance organizer:
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statement of inclusive concepts to introduce and sum up material that follows
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Universal design:
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considering the needs of all users in the design of new tools, learning programs, or website
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Pygmalion effect:
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exceptional progress by a student as a result of high teacher expectations for that student; named for mythological king who made a statue, then caused it to be brought to life
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Self-fulfilling prophecy:
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a groundless expectation that is confirmed because it has been expected
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Sustaining expectation effect:
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student performance maintained at a certain level because teachers don’t recognize improvements
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Cognitive objectives:
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instructional objectives stated in terms of higher level thinking operations
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Standardized tests:
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tests given, usually nationwide, under uniform conditions and scored according to uniform procedures
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Classroom assessment:
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they are selected and created by teachers and can take many different forms—unit tests, essays, portfolios, projects, performances, oral presentations, etc.
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Measurement:
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an evaluation expressed in quantitative (number) terms
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Assessment:
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procedures used to obtain information about student performance
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Formative assessment:
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ungraded testing used before or during instruction to aid in planning and diagnosis
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Pretest:
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formative knowledge for assessing students’ knowledge, readiness, and abilities
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Summative assessment:
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testing that follows instruction and assesses achievement
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Norm-referenced testing:
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testing in which scores are compared with the average performance of others
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Norm group:
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large sample of students serving as a comparison group for scoring tests
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Criterion-referenced testing:
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testing in which scores are compared to set a performance standard
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Reliability:
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consistency of test results
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Standard error of measurement:
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hypothetical estimation of variation in scores if testing were repeated
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True score:
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the score the student would get if the measurement were completely accurate and error-free
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Validity:
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degree to which a test measures what it is intended to measure
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Assessment bias:
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qualities of an assessment instrument that offend or unfairly penalize a group of students because of the student’s gender, SES, ethnicity, etc
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Culture-fair/culture-free test:
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a test without cultural bias
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Norm-referenced grading:
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assessment of students’ achievement in relation to one another
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Grading on the curve:
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norm-referenced grading that compares students’ performance to an average level
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Criterion-referenced grading:
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assessment of each student’s mastery of course objectives
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Central tendency:
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typical score for a group of scores
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Median:
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middle score in a group of scores
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Mode:
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most frequently occurring score
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Standard deviation:
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measure of how widely scores vary from the mean
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Variability:
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degree of difference or deviation from mean
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Range:
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distance between the highest and the lowest score in a group
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Normal distribution:
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the most commonly occurring distribution, in which scores are distributed evenly around the mean
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Percentile rank:
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percentage of those in the normal sampling who scored at or below an individual’s score
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Grade-equivalent score:
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measure of grade level based on comparison with norming samples from each grade
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Standard scores:
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scores based on the standard deviation
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Z score:
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standard score indicating the number of standard deviations above or below the mean
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T score:
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standard score with a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 10
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Stanine scores:
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whole number scores from 1 to 9, each representing a wide range of raw scores
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Confidence interval:
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range of scores within which an individual’s particular score is likely to fall
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Mean:
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arithmetical average
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